The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
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4! )(4! )(2! ) . If you are curious, that works out to be 34,650, but the precise number is not really what is important. It is the reasoning underlying the answer that we care about. 5.5 the basic argument from improbability We are now ready to see how anti-evolutionists use probability theory in their arguments. We have noted that they start with a track one argument that evolution is asking us to believe that something very improbable has occurred. Their various track two arguments are then attempts to state precisely what that something is. For this purpose, they often take aim at the specificity of proteins, and we will consider some of their efforts in this regard in the present section. We start with an especially clear example, written by David Foster, an ID proponent. His argument involves hemoglobin, a pro- tein that transports oxygen through the blood of humans and other vertebrates. Hemoglobin is a complex molecule possessing an elaborate, three-dimensional structure. However, Foster’s argument treats it as a simple string of 574 amino acids. This is a crude oversimplification, but we can accept it for the sake of argument. Our goal is to expose the fallacious mathematical reasoning underlying the argument, as opposed to obsessing about every biological detail. There are twenty kinds of amino acids in total. Foster begins his argument by listing the frequency with which each amino acid appears in hemoglobin. For example, the amino acid glycine appears 36 times, alanine appears 68 times, and so on. He now writes: The specificity of hemoglobin is described by the improbability of the specific amino acid sequence occurring by random chance. Such specificity is capable of exact calculation in the permutation formula: 5.5 the basic argument from improbability 125 P = N ! n 1 ! ×n 2 ! ×n 3 ! . . . etc. where N is the total number of amino acids in hemoglobin (574); n 1 , etc. are the number of separate kinds of amino acids; and ! means that the given separate numbers are subjected to “factorial” expansion. Thus: 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2. (Foster 1999, 80) That centralized formula is precisely the one we derived at the end of Section 5.4. Foster is discussing the “specificity of hemoglobin” in precisely the same way we described ordering the letters in Missis- sippi. He now continues: In the case of hemoglobin, … the specific numerical value of the solution is P = 10 654 . This is an immense number, 10 multiplied by itself 654 times. … Thus we can state that the improbability of hemoglobin occurring by random selection can be represented by the infinitely small number 10 −654 , which means 10 divided by itself 654 times: as near to zero as one could consider. … This raises the question as to whether such very low probabilities are of a miraculous nature when they occur in factual situations such as the protein hemoglobin – whether such extremely improbable events are relevant to the question “Does God exist?” (Foster 1999, 80) For the sake of accuracy, we should note that 10 −654 does not actually mean to divide 10 by itself 654 times. Rather, it means to divide 1 by 10 a total of 654 times. This is equivalent to dividing 10 by itself 653 times. Here is another version of the same argument, put forth by Ariel Roth, a young-Earth creationist: Suppose we need a specific kind of protein. What are the chances that amino acids would show up in the specific order required? The number of possible combinations is unimaginably great, because there is the possibility of any one of 20 amino acids occupying each position. For a protein needing 100 specific amino 126 5 probability theory acids, the number has been estimated at many times greater than all the atoms in the universe. Hence the chance of getting a necessary kind of protein is extremely small. … For 100 specific amino acids the chance of getting the right kind of protein is only 1 out of the number 49 followed by 190 zeros (4.9 × 10 −191 ). Other similar calculations yield numbers that are also beyond the realm of plausibility. (Roth 1998, 69–70) Arguments of this general sort are ubiquitous in anti- evolutionist literature. Foster’s article was published in a mainstream American periodical called The Saturday Evening Post, and I am sure its generally conservative readership was delighted by the superficial precision of his argument. I used Roth’s example because he presented an easily quotable version of the argument, but most young-Earth creationist books present some version of it. Regardless of the precise variation, the underlying logic of the argument is always the same: 1. Identify a complex biological structure, such as a specific gene or protein. 2. Model its evolution as a process of randomly selecting one item from a very large space of equiprobable possibilities. 3. Use elementary combinatorics to determine the size of the space, which we shall call S. 4. Conclude that the probability of the structure having evolved by chance is 1/S, and assert that this is too small for evolution to be plausible. I shall refer to this as the Basic Argument from Improbability (BAI). What can be said in reply? Let us recast the BAI in the language of Section 5.2. We will assume the argument is being applied to a protein. In this case, our probability space consists of the set of proteins of a certain length. The BAI equips this space with the uniform distribution, meaning, recall, that we assume that any individual protein is as likely to occur as any other. Evolving a specific protein is then modeled as selecting one point at random from this space. Since the space is vast, the number of attempts needed to achieve success is prohibitive, even 5.5 the basic argument from improbability 127 given geological time scales with which to work. At this point you assert that evolution has been disproved and call it a day. However, you will have noticed that a critical part of the evolutionary process has been left out of this model. Biologists do not claim that the proteins found in modern organisms arose in one step by random selection from the space of all theoretical possibilities. The actual claim is that they arose in a gradual, step-by-step manner, as random variations were passed through the sieve of natural selection. Moreover, as we have noted, the problem is never to explain how some modern protein arose from scratch, but is rather to explain how the modern protein evolved from some more ancient protein, one that was possibly simpler and more rudimentary than the modern form. Recall also our discussion from Section 4.2. Evolution finds its ultimate starting point at the origin of life, which we can think of as situating life at some specific point in protein space. As the process plays out, we do not search protein space as a whole, but instead carry out a sequence of local searches in the neighborhood of the point at which we happen to find ourselves. We noted that the vastness of the space as a whole is irrelevant because we only search a tiny fraction of it. This is illustrated in Figure 5.2. We can now point to the first serious error with the BAI: it equipped its probability space with the uniform distribution, which is terribly unrealistic. Parents are very unlikely to have offspring with a protein far away from theirs. It is much more likely that the offspring has a protein that is local to the parents. Therefore, proteins near to our starting point are far more likely to be sampled than are proteins that are far away. The correct distribution would assign a probability close to 0 for most of the space – since most proteins will be very far away from our starting point – and then a very high probability to proteins that are nearby. This leads us to the second serious problem with the BAI: it ignores the role of natural selection in affecting the probability of finding certain proteins. Suppose that some nearby proteins represent improvements over our current state, while other nearby proteins are |
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