The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
part of the biologist’s toolkit for many decades. For example, here is
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
part of the biologist’s toolkit for many decades. For example, here is biologist Julian Huxley, writing in 1942: The converse is known as duplication, when a portion of a chromosome comes to be repeated, occurring twice instead of once, either in the form of a translocation to another chromosome, or of a “repeat” within the same chromosome, often immediately adjacent to its original position. … They are of much greater ultimate importance, since they constitute the chief method by which the number of genes is increased, thus providing duplicate factors, and the opportunity for slight divergent specialization of homologous genes, giving great delicacy of adjustment. (Huxley 1942, 89) Modern gene sequencing techniques make it easy to identify when duplications have occurred, and it is commonplace to find them implicated in major evolutionary transitions. Biologists have been pointing this out to anti-evolutionists for many years now, but to no avail. For example, Phillip Johnson recounts a conversation he had with physicist Paul Davies, in which Davies mentioned gene duplication: When I asked Davies about this, his reply gave me the impression that he thinks that natural selection increases genetic information by preserving copies that are made in the reproductive process. I am afraid this misses the point. When two rabbits reproduce there are more rabbits, but there is not any increase in genetic information in the relevant sense. If you need to write out the full text of the encyclopedia and have only page one, you cannot make progress toward your goal by copying page one twenty times. (Johnson 2000, 59) It is true that the mere duplication of a gene does not increase information in the sense of creating a new functional structure for the organism. The problem, however, is that Johnson’s response just ignores half of the process. Duplication by itself increases the 6.3 how evolution increases genetic information 175 information storage capacity of the genome, in the same sense that inserting a blank flash drive increases a computer’s information storage capacity. New information is then created when the genes subsequently diverge, just as a computer is storing more information than before once you put a new file onto the drive. A similar response has been offered by Georgia Purdom, a young-Earth creationist: As has been said many times on this site, duplications … and mutations do not add new information to the genome. Duplications are the result of duplicating existing genetic information, and mutations alter existing genetic information (whether original or duplicated). Neither of them adds new information. Think about it this way: if I give someone a copy of a book they already own, then they don’t have any new information, just a copy of information they already had. If I subsequently take a marker and mark out some of the letters or words in the copy of the book I gave them, they still don’t have any new information – just a messed up copy of one of the books. (Purdom 2008) Again, it is not duplications by themselves, or mutations by themselves, that account for information increase. Rather, it is dupli- cation, followed by mutations in the duplicate copy that increase information. If I give someone a second copy of a book they already own, and then I change the text of the second copy by writing in some words of my own, then the recipient of the second book certainly does have some new information. Shannon’s view of information is useful in many contexts, but as applied to genes it seems to miss something important. If we think in Shannon’s terms, then any random sequence of DNA bases contains lots of information, even if that DNA does not code for anything useful. Construed in this way, the quantity of information in a genome is strictly a function of the number of DNA bases, but 176 6 information and combinatorial search somehow this does not seem to capture the main issue. What we really need is something like a measure of useful information. Mod- ern organisms can do lots of things that ancient organisms could not do. They have acquired new functionalities in the course of natural history. Can we measure and explain this increase in “functional information”? Whatever such measure you define (see Section 6.11 for one pos- sibility), there is no challenge in explaining how evolution increases functional information. The required mechanism is natural selection acting on random variations, as we have discussed at length elsewhere in the book. New functional information arises in a gradual, stepwise manner. When selection surveys the extant variation in a population, thereby increasing the frequencies of certain genes over others in future generations, the result is an increase in functional genetic information. There is another sense in which natural selection can be said to increase a genome’s information content. We tend to think of genetic information solely in terms of what is needed to construct an organism. That is, “genetic information” means “the information needed to build a phenotype from a genotype.” This is fine, but the genome also encodes information about the environments in which organisms find themselves. Evolution causes populations to become better adapted to their environments. As a result, the genomes of recent populations encode more environmental information than those of ancient populations. We could even say that natural selection is an information conduit from the environment into genomes. Since this point will arise naturally in Section 6.8, we will defer further discussion until then. The point is simply that the only challenge “information” poses to evolution is defining it with sufficient precision to understand what is being asked. By any of the standard definitions used by biologists, there is nothing puzzling about how known mechanisms can explain information growth in evolution. The pretensions of ID proponents to 6.4 the basic argument from information 177 have devised novel understandings of the concept useful for drawing grand biological conclusions have no merit. This has not stopped anti-evolutionists from serving up a vari- ety of information-based arguments against evolution. We shall con- sider the most important of these in the remainder of this chapter. 6.4 the basic argument from information We come now to the basic anti-evolutionist argument in this area, which is the claim that mutations can only degrade information. In other words, evolution is based on the idea of stringing together useful mutations, but this is said to be impossible because mutations can only break things. Here is a standard presentation of the basic argument, from engineering professor Andrew McIntosh: At the molecular level, the laws of thermodynamics do not permit step changes in the biochemical machinery set up for a particular function performed by the cells of living organisms. Thus, random mutations always have the effect of increasing the disorder (or what can be defined as logical entropy) of any particular system, and consequently decreasing the information content. Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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