The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
U
= Q − W. (7.1) In words: the change in internal energy is found by adding the energy entering the system as heat and subtracting the energy leaving the system as work done on the surroundings. If we restrict our attention to an isolated system, then nothing whatsoever is crossing the boundary. In this case we have Q = W = 0, which implies that U = 0 as well. Thus, in this case, the first law reduces to the statement that the internal energy of an isolated system must remain constant, which is equivalent to saying that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. In this form, the first law is often referred to as the law of conservation of energy. (It is possible to formulate versions of the first law that apply to open systems, but this requires a level of technical detail that is well beyond anything we want to discuss here.) Whereas the mathematical formulation of the first law does not require anything especially fancy, the second law can only be expressed using some ideas from calculus. Furthermore, we will need one more bit of thermo-jargon to express it properly. It is worth the trouble to do this, so I will ask you to bear with me for a moment. Recall that the earliest theorizing about thermodynamics occurred in the context of practical questions about heat engines. The tendency of heat to travel from hot to cold, and not vice versa, was the main principle underlying the functionality of such engines, and we saw that engines tend to dissipate energy into less available forms. This led to practical questions about how efficient a heat engine could possibly be. It was quickly realized that, among other attributes, the most efficient possible heat engine would be one in which no energy was 230 7 thermodynamics lost to the surroundings, but was instead converted perfectly into work. Real heat engines, no matter how well designed, inevitably waste some energy because of friction between moving parts or by radiating heat to the surroundings, but an ideal heat engine would not have these defects. This led to the notion of a “reversible” process. The idea is best explained by example. Imagine a piston in a cylinder that compresses a small quantity of gas. If we add a small quantity of heat to the system, then the gas expands and pushes the piston outward. But if we now cool the gas to precisely its original temperature, the piston returns precisely to its original position. This is an example of a reversible process. A small change to the surroundings leads to a small change to the system, and restoring the surroundings to their original state restores the system as well. Real thermodynamical processes are never perfectly reversible precisely because some energy is always lost to the surroundings. In a real process, restoring the surroundings to their initial state does not perfectly restore the system. Therefore, the concept of “reversibility” captures the idea that an ideal heat engine converts all of its heat to work, and it is for this reason that entropy calculations are always carried out under the assumption that we are studying a reversible process. More precisely, in calculating the change in entropy that occurs when a system goes from some initial state to some final state, we begin by describing a reversible process taking us from one state to another, and then we evaluate a certain mathematical expression. Here is that expression, where S represents entropy, Q repre- sents the heat added to the system, and T represents the temperature of the system when the heat is added. (For technical reasons, it is important to use a temperature scale on which 0 ◦ represents absolute zero, but this detail is not important for our purposes.) Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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