The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
Practical Zoocriticism and the Wild Animal Story
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Allmark-KentC
Practical Zoocriticism and the Wild Animal Story
Practical zoocriticism studies the intersection between: literary representations of nonhuman animals; the theoretical and practical work of Allmark-Kent 24 animal advocacy (animal ethics, welfare, and conservation); and the scientific study of animal minds. It recognizes that all three factors —literature, advocacy, and science —are in constant flux, as are their relationships with each other. The practical zoocriticism model acknowledges, as best as possible, that these relationships are often complex, obtuse, and not necessarily favoured by all of their practitioners. For instance, an author may represent animals in literature without developing a scientific understanding of animal minds. An animal cognition researcher may have no interest in animal ethics. And a welfare campaigner may see no value in literary representations of animals. Even within animal advocacy, the relationships between differing approaches can be fraught; wildlife conservation and animal ethics are often at odds. These diverging attitudes can be quite common, but the work of practical zoocriticism is to pursue the instances in which all three factors are in alignment and explore the practical possibilities of their interaction. It is my belief that the wild animal stories of Seton and Roberts constitute just such an alignment of literature, science, and advocacy. In the preface to his first collection of realistic wild animal stories, Kindred of the Wild (1902), Roberts writes that, whether avowedly or not, “it is with the psychology of animal life that the representative animal stories of to-day [sic] are first of all concerned” (16). Seton’s own first collection, Wild Animals I Have Known , was published four years earlier, but it is in Roberts’ preface that we find the first attempt to define their new genre. Aware that they were attempting a literary innovation, both authors often wrote such self-conscious prefaces to their collections. However, Roberts proposed aims and characteristics for the genre, whereas Seton merely discussed his own work. As I will demonstrate in my third chapter, based on my observations, I contend that Seton was the Allmark-Kent 25 original innovator, but it was Roberts who influenced the final shape of the wild animal story. The men worked separately (though they had some contact) and I believe that it was their different backgrounds that contributed to the implicit establishment of these two discrete roles. Seton lacked formal education, and worked variously as a wildlife artist, naturalist, and hunter (collecting bounties on the heads of predators), before becoming a writer; Roberts was educated at the University of New Brunswick, taught English and French literature, and edited literary journals. Roberts emphasized the wild animal story’s relationship with scientific research, whilst Seton made passionate pleas on behalf of animals. Indeed, he concludes the final story of Wild Animals I Have Known with one such declaration: “Have the wild things no moral or legal rights? What right has man to inflict such long and fearful agony on a fellow-creature, simply because that creature does not speak his language” (357). Although Seton and Roberts expressed their priorities differently, the work of both men contained the same commitment to producing imaginative speculations regarding the life and psychology of individual animals in order to promote the improved treatment of animals generally. I argue that the prefaces Seton and Roberts wrote for each collection of stories provide invaluable insights into this misunderstood and poorly-defined genre. Where many critics choose not to do so, I take their words seriously and approach the wild animal story on those terms. In his article “From Within Fur and Feathers” (2000), John Sandlos observes that Seton and Roberts “attempt […] to create animal characters that are at least partly accurate and real is precisely the creative objective that is so often overlooked” (76). Moreover, he adds that, “this is the unique innovation of these early Canadian animal stories” (79, emphasis added). Without going into further detail here, I argue that we can Allmark-Kent 26 roughly define the wild animal story as a scientifically-informed, zoocentric speculation; a sustained attempt to imagine the lives, experiences, and unique perspectives of one or more nonhuman protagonists, living independently and autonomously from humans. Through the study of animal protagonists in the six twentieth-century texts that I have identified, I will investigate the ways in which each author engages with this endeavour in a post-Nature Fakers context. It is worth noting that, at present there are no sustained analyses of Seton ’s and Roberts’ influence on subsequent representations of animals in Canadian literature. Nor has literary studies produced any major investigations concentrating solely on nonhuman protagonists. Most established interpretations of the wild animal story undermine Seton ’s and Roberts’ commitment to representing nonhuman minds and perspectives, prioritizing anthropocentric readings instead. Even within more recent literary animal studies work, efforts to read their work as a sincere zoocentric endeavour have been minimal. Recalling Bergman’s comments above, we might attribute this to the general negligence towards real animals, which seem “almost an embarrassment, a disturbance to the symbolic field” (Bergman). Here, then, we can begin to detect some factors contributing to the aura of embarrassment and discomfort attached to the wild animal story. In literary animal studies, this is exacerbated by Seton ’s and Roberts’ preoccupation with notions of fact, accuracy, and truth, which drew considerable attention during the Nature Fakers controversy. Understandably, these claims are especially problematic for animal-sceptical critics. From the animal- endorsing perspective of practical zoocriticism, however, I propose that we must accept some damage to the agency and alterity of the imagined animal (its ability to resist interpretation and representation), if it can be of benefit to the |
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