The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
Download 3.36 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
Allmark-KentC
CHAPTER TWO
KNOWING OTHER ANIMALS: NONHUMANS IN TWENTIETH- CENTURY CANADIAN LITERATURE Canadians and Animals “Canadian literature is full of claims made on behalf of animals,” (1) begins Janice Fiamengo’s introduction to Other Selves: Animals in the Canadian Imagination (2007). As indicated by this remark, I would add that Canadian literary criticism is full of claims about animals made on behalf of a nation. Three influential texts by Canadian critics Alec Lucas, James Polk and Margaret Atwood have supported the assumption that Canadian literature is ‘full’ of animals, and have continued to shape studies in this area. 1 In The Wacousta Syndrome (1985), Gaile McGregor epitomises the attitude shared by these critics and makes one such claim on behalf of the nation : “Canadians are fascinated by animals” (192). Until recently, little serious critical attention had been paid to the presence of animals in Canadian literature, and yet influential critics continued to identify this presence as unique —perhaps even “distinctively Canadian” (Atwood 73). Hence, the representation of animals in Canadian literature was simultaneously recognized as significant, yet unworthy of any rigorous scholarly consideration. This oversight was of course due to the general anthropocentrism of the humanities discussed in the previous chapter, but it was exacerbated by the perception of the wild animal story as a national literary embarrassment following the Nature Fakers controversy. For instance, Polk opens his famous 1 In the Literary History of Canada (1965), Alec Lucas’ survey “Nature Writers and the Animal Story”; James Polk’s “Lives of the Hunted” published in issue 53 of Canadian Literature (Summer 1972) and Margaret Atwood’s Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature (1972). Allmark-Kent 34 article “Lives of the Hunted” with a quote from E.O. Wilson in which the American biologist imagines the Canadian wilderness to be full of the animal characters from Ernest Thompson Seton’s stories. With obvious resentment, Polk responds: “Typically American, we sigh, to see Canada as a hunters’ game park and to hold firmly to the legends transmitted by an outdated, scarcely respectable branch of our literature” (51, emphasis added). Yet, as a genre almost exclusive to Canadian authors, the wild animal story came to be seen as representative of all depictions of animals in Canadian literature. If the genre was “distinctively Canadian” (Atwood 73), the thinking went, then it must have sprung from some distinctively Canadian way of perceiving animals. Indeed Atwood, influenced by Polk, proposed a theory about the importance of animals to ‘the Canadian psyche’ based entirely on the stories of Seton and Charles G.D. Roberts (73). It is perhaps unscholarly to make such claims on behalf of the nation based on the work of only two authors, both of whom wrote at the same time and were undoubtedly influenced by each other. Trends for the type of criticism shared by Atwood, Polk, and the others —mostly thematic and nationalist —faded somewhat and interest in the presence of animals in Canadian literature seems to have correspondingly diminished. As the diversity of essays in Other Selves suggests however, the rise in literary animal studies signals that it is less embarrassing to take seriously that ‘scarcely respectable’ aspect of Canadian literature. The emerging field of Canadian literary animal studies does of course recognize works beyond Seton and Roberts, and the diversity of attitudes to animals represented. Nonetheless, despite obvious changes in the style of critical analysis, claims about animals are sti ll being made on behalf of the nation: “Animals are so fundamental to our [Canadian] writing that it might indeed be said that our Allmark-Kent 35 literature is founded on the bodies of animals —alive or dead; anthropomorphized or ‘realistic’; indigenous or exotic; sentimental, tragic, magical and mythical” (Fiamengo 5-6). So whilst this has been acknowledged both broadly and repeatedly, there have actually been remarkably few attempts to either characterize or explain this apparent ‘fascination’. To do so would require a comprehensive survey of animals in Canadian literature, and whilst Fiamengo’s collection demonstrates the potential heterogeneity of representations, it is by no means a survey. On the other hand, Lucas’ survey is undoubtedly comprehensive, but it is now out-of-date and does not consider the depiction of animals outside the genres of nature writing and the animal story. This omission is highlighted when we consider John Sandlos’ comment in his detailed article, “From Within Fur and Feathers” (2000): “perhaps the most important development in the Canadian animal ‘story’ in the last three decades is the attempt by many authors (even poets) with no strong ties to natural history tradition to write about animals” (83-4). The majority of the novels addressed in this chapter were produced during the period that Sandlos identifies, motivated no doubt by the gradual progression of animal and environmental politics from the margins towards mainstream public concern. The development he identifies is also particularly significant for my own argument that, after the Nature Fakers controversy, two strands of the wild animal story developed from Seton ’s and Roberts’ work: ‘realistic’ and ‘speculative’. The realistic works are written by those with some background in natural history, tending to write about animals regularly in both fiction and nonfiction (Roderick Haig-Brown, Fred Bodsworth and R.D. Lawrence), whereas the speculative narratives are by authors without this expertise, and for whom this is their only work of animal literature (Frederick Allmark-Kent 36 Philip Grove, Barbara Gowdy and Alison Baird). Sandlos’ comment also challenges the misconception that Seton ’s and Roberts’ style of animal representation is the ‘Canadian style’ of animal representation, and reminds us that, as Fiamengo states: “important encounters with animals abound in [Canadian] canonical works” (5). Hence, I suggest that this is the significant point about Canadian literature: there is an abundance of narratives about animals, yet there is also an abundance of animals in narratives about humans. Even as minor characters, Canadian literary a nimals are still ‘fascinating’. To demonstrate the uniqueness of the wild animal story, then, it is necessary to place it in relation to these other representations of animals in Canadian literature. This chapter provides a brief literary survey of these representations. As my research and thinking behind it has developed, however, it has also become an attempt to hazard an explanation for this seeming abundance of fascinating animals in Canadian literature. As practically the only existing alternative , I have of course used Atwood’s argument as a starting point for my own opposing stance and in the following section I begin with a thorough critique of her ‘Canadian animal victims’ theory in Survival. I then outline my position and the three broad categories of animal representation that I have identified, before proceeding with the literary analysis itself. Since the focus here is still the wild animal story, the survey will be restricted to depictions of wild animals. I do propose, though, that it is the ‘wildness’ of these animals that makes them ‘fascinating.’ As I argue below, wildness and wild animals seem to hold a significant position in Canadian culture. The definition of ‘wild’ can be blurred however, and like a few of Seton’s and Roberts’ stories, there are crossovers with domesticated animals behaving in (or being perceived in) ‘wild’ ways. Since this fascination does not seem to apply to pets or farm Allmark-Kent 37 animals, it is more than likely that the individuals in these narratives only become ‘fascinating’ when they become ‘wild’. The texts covered here are restricted to novels from the twentieth century written in English, and again this is to reflect the nature of this project. Nevertheless, I will allow for a few crucial texts from the beginning of the twenty-first century —Yann Martel’s Life of Pi (2001) being an obvious inclusion, for instance. Unlike the rest of the thesis, however, and unlike the other studies of Canadian literature mentioned here, this chapter also includes texts by Aboriginal authors. In doing so, I will attempt to avoid tokenistic engagement, these texts will not be unthinkingly assimilated into my framework neither will they be ‘othered’ and forced into a reductive Native/non-Native dichotomy. 2 Due to the size of the task here, however, practical considerations must be acknowledged, and realistically none of the texts in this chapter can be given the thorough attention and detailed analysis they deserve; a certain amount of brevity is to be expected. Feasibility means that the abundance of animals in other forms of literature cannot be addressed here; notable exclusions being poetry and non-fiction genres, in particular nature writing; autobiography and travel accounts. Inevitably, the discussions in this chapter are by no means exhaustive, but hopefully they can be starting points from which future research, and perhaps a more holistic theory of animals in Canadian literature, may develop. 2 I use the terms ‘assimilation’ and ‘othering’ knowingly to reflect Canada’s colonial status, the legacy of which can often unwittingly be repeated in academic practices. |
Ma'lumotlar bazasi mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan ©fayllar.org 2024
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling