The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Allmark-KentC
Canadian and Animal Victims
In “Lives of the Hunted,” Polk compares the animal stories of British, American and Canadian literature, providing the foundation of Atwood’s argument that the realistic wild animal story is “distinctively Canadian” (Atwood 73). He states: The British writer, steeped in the social order, is doomed to transform his animals into miniaturized people: thus the moles, toads, rats, weasels and bunnies in Kenneth Grahame and Beatrix Potter have class accents, wear clothes and own houses. Whether dressed or not, the British animal usually inhabits a domestic world of farmyards and happy endings. (52) There is no “wildness” to British animals, he argues since, regardless of species, they are always socially stratified humans in disguise. Likewise, he finds similar anthropocentrism in American literature, in which nature exists to challenge man, to jolt him into self-discovery, to reveal the truths of a transcendental universe, to shout out sermons from stones. […] the animal […] has a way of turning into a furred or finned symbol, a cosmic beast whose significance transforms the insight of the hunter. (52) By comparison, he suggests that in Canadian writing this anthropocentrism seems “almost inverted” where “the emphasis is not on man at all, but on the animal” (53). Of course Polk’s method of interpretation is anthropocentric itself (it is possible to read animals in British and American literature without resorting to allegory) as well as highly generalizing, but I do agree to an extent. Inevitably our positions diverge when Polk argues that this emphasis on the animal expresses surprisingly anthropocentric concerns. The “persecution” of the “hunted” animal is nothing more than a manifestation of Canada’s own sense of “persecution” and anxiety over its own “survival” (58). This anxiety comes from Canada’s “perennial questioning of its own national identity,” and is increasingly coupled with “a suspicion that a fanged America lurks in the bushes, poised for Allmark-Kent 39 the kill” (58). It is with this image of Canada as a threatened animal victim that Atwood begins her argument in Survival. As stated above, until the development of literary animal studies, the stories of Seton and Roberts were broadly seen as representative of animals in Canadian literature. Both Polk and Atwood extrapolate from the wild animal story to generalize and make claims on behalf of the nation, whereas I argue the opposite. As Lucas explains, “[a]nimal stories like Roberts’s and Seton’s have not been especially numerous ,” and between them “they have made the history of the wild animal story almost entirely the history of their work in it” (403, 398). Thus, I define the unique characteristics of the wild animal story against the majority of Canadian literature, instead of defining the characteristics of Canadian literature through this minor genre as Atwood does. From this position, then, she proposes that animals in Canadian literature are always victims, and they are always victims because Canadians themselves feel victimized. I take issue with this premise both for its inherent anthropocentrism and for its homogenizing inaccuracy. Animal victims are not restricted to Canadian literature, as Marion Scholtmeijer’s Animal Victims in Modern Fiction (1993) attests. 3 Likewise, not every animal in Canadian literature is a victim, as Susan Fisher indicates in her article “Animalia” when describing the elephants of The White Bone: “[they] certainly suffer at the hands of human beings, but they are not animal victims in the pathetic sense Atwood described, nor are they particularly Canadian” (160). I propose here then, that th e instability at the core of Atwood’s argument lies in the following assumptions: “Canada is a collective victim” (36); animals in literature are 3 She argues that the “conception of the animal as victim” has become so “universal” that “the modern person is most likely to accept the animal’s status as victim as definitive” since “it has become difficult to separate the animal f rom that particular role” (11). Allmark-Kent 40 “always symbols” (75); Canadian literature always presents “animals as victims” (75). Atwood poses an “easily guessed riddle” to her readers: “what trait in our national psyche do these animal victims symbolize?” (75). If each culture has a “single unifying and informing symbol at its core,” then America’s is “The Frontier,” “England is perhaps the Island,” and for Canada it is “undoubtedly Survival” (31-2). She explains: Like the Frontier and The Island it is a multi-faceted and adaptable idea. For early explorers and settlers, it meant bare survival in the face of ‘hostile’ elements and/or natives: carving out a place and a way of keeping alive. But the word can also suggest survival of a crisis or disaster, like a hurricane or a wreck […] what you might call ‘grim’ survival as opposed to ‘bare’ survival. (32) Whilst anxiety over survival is understandable for any peoples affected by extreme geography and climate, Atwood argues that the issue is the survival of Canadian culture too: For French Canada after the English took over it became cultural survival, hanging on as a people, retaining a religion and a language under an alien government. And in English Canada now while the Americans are taking over it is acquiring a similar meaning. (32) Here we can see the return of Polk’s ‘fanged America.’ Considering the nation’s colonial history and Ameri ca’s cultural dominance, this sense of cultural instability is perhaps to be expected. Again though, Atwood takes this idea further : “Let us suppose, for the sake of argument, that Canada as a whole is a victim, or an ‘oppressed minority,’ or ‘exploited’” (35). This victim theory becomes the core of her argument but without her fully engaging with or explaining how Canada is victimized, beyond its obvious colonial history : “Let us suppose in short that Canada is a colony” (35). Although currently more evident in Australia, I concur with Helen Tiffin and Graham Huggan’s assertion in Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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