The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
Download 3.36 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
Allmark-KentC
Practising Zoocriticism
In the “Knowing Other Animals” chapter, I argued that the wild animal story was not representative of Canadian literature. Using a survey of twentieth- century texts, I differentiated common forms of animal representation and characterized them as the fantasy of knowing the animal, the failure of knowing the animal, and the acceptance of not-knowing the animal. I demonstrated that the surveyed texts fell into the latter categories, whereas the wild animal story and the six core twentieth-century texts embodied the fantasy of knowing the Allmark-Kent 250 animal. Through analysis of Canadian environmental history, I suggested that the differences between these styles of representation may have been influenced by the nation’s complex relationship with animals. Contradictory impulses to both exploit and protect the Canadian environment and its nonhuman inhabitants seem to be exacerbated by a national iconography dominated by images of animals, juxtaposed with the autonomous, unpredictable presences of living wild animals. I proposed that we might characterize Canada’s relationship with wild animals as one of simultaneous fascination and confusion, but I emphasized that this was not intended as a homogenizing theory of a mythical ‘Canadian psyche.’ In the following chapter, “Practical Zoocriticism,” I demonstrated the prevalence of anthropocentric interpretations of the wild animal story. Such perspectives tend to undermine the zoocentric aims of the genre by dissociating the stories from Seton ’s and Roberts’ attempts to engage with animal sciences and animal advocacy. These efforts to marginalize the presence of the nonhuman animal may have been influenced the “embarrassment” of the animal (Charles Bergman). Hence, these arguments inevitably overlooked what John Sandlos described as the “unique innovation” of the genre (79). I suggested that such analyses, combined with the general misunderstanding and poor definition of the genre, have contributed to the negative perception of the wild animal story. In order to illustrate the value of Seton ’s and Roberts’ innovations, I proposed that their representations of autonomous wild animals may have been motivated by the anthropocentric, objectifying use of animals in other nineteenth-century Canadian literature. Using the practical zoocriticism framework, I also speculated on the likelihood that the wild animal story developed in reaction to Canada’s rather Allmark-Kent 251 marginal, fragmented efforts at animal advocacy. Investigating the history of animal protection and wildlife conservation movements demonstrated the contrast between those of Canada and its neighbours. The lack of a coherent response to animal exploitation in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Canada has been attributed to the nation’s continued economic dependence on different animal industries. As I stated, however, there has been very little scholarship in this area, and none that attempts to track the dual evolution of both Canada’s wildlife conservation and animal welfare movements. Nonetheless, I proposed that the nation’s dichotomy between exploitation and protection impeded these movements, compared to the concurrent progress being made in Great Britain and the United States. By examining the history of science, and the changing relationship between science and literature, I indicated the ways in which the nineteenth- century process of specialization and professionalization impacted the wild animal story and Nature Fakers controversy. Both Seton and Roberts were born in the middle of this transformation, and by the time that their stories became popular, the boundaries between disciplines were more distinct than ever before. As a consequence, areas like natural history and animal psychology experienced diminished credibility as sciences, and so it became increasingly important to maintain their validity by excluding amateurs and popular writers. Thus, I provided original insights into the motivations behind the Nature Fakers controversy by suggesting that, as influential figures in the field, John Burroughs and Theodore Roosevelt may have been attempting to reinforce the respectability of natural history by excluding Seton, Roberts, and the others. Similarly, my investigation into animal psychology revealed its origins in the anecdotes and popular writing of unscientific obs ervers. George Romanes’ Allmark-Kent 252 attempts to establish the first scientific theory of animal intelligence were undermined by Conwy Lloyd Morgan who questioned his reliance on anecdotal evidence. The implementation of Morgan’s canon increased the importance of instinct in comparative psychology, and prompted its transformation into behaviourism in the early decades of the twentieth-century. In these preoccupations with professionalism and objectivity, we also find the anxiety and embarrassment of anthropomorphism. I argue that the stigma against anecdotal evidence that undermined Romanes’ work, also contributed to the criticisms targeted at the wild animal story. In “Wild Animals and Nature Fakers,” I used the contextual information gained in the previous chapter to inform a survey of Seton ’s and Roberts’ texts across three volumes of each author’s work. This analysis demonstrated the validity of the genre criteria I established in the previous chapter, whilst also illuminating Seton ’s and Roberts’ engagement with the core contextual factors of ‘literature,’ ‘advocacy,’ and ‘science.’ My readings explored the ways in which the wild animal story prioritized the animality, individuality, and autonomy of protagonists in contrast to the objectifying use of animals in other nineteenth- century Canadian literature. I then considered the genre’s engagement with advocacy through the defamiliarizing use of nonhuman biography. I contend that by juxtaposing depictions of the animal protagonist as an autonomous, living individual and a useful, dead object the stories reflect Tom Regan’s concept of n onhuman animals as the “subject-of-a-life” (243). The zoocentric defamiliarization of the wild animal story also extended to challenging the species stereotypes that legitimize exploitation, as well as depicting the violence of that exploitation from a nonhuman perspective. I proposed that both of these Allmark-Kent 253 techniques perform a valuable function in the relationship between literature and advocacy. By drawing comparisons between the anecdotal cognitivism of Romanes, Seton, and Roberts, I explored the genre’s unique engagement with scientific evidence. Here I encountered a difference between Seton ’s and Roberts’ work. Whilst the former often depicted himself in his stories as the scientist gathering his observations, Roberts used his prefaces to describe his use of research and anecdotes from other observers. I interpreted this disparity as perhaps a reflection of their differing relationships with wild animals. Finally, I demonstrated the exten sive similarities between Seton, Roberts, and Romanes’ perceptions of animal minds. By reading the wild animal story through Romanes ’ theory of (and criteria for) animal intelligence, I provided a new, robust challenge to the genre’s reputation for anthropomorphism and inaccuracy. From this perspective, then, Seton ’s and Roberts’ representations were in accordance with the contemporary animal psychology research. After providing this entirely original re-contextualization and re-evaluation of the wild animal story, I examined two of the articles Burroughs and Roosevelt contributed to the Nature Fakers controversy. By interpreting their criticisms through the context of nineteenth-century scientific specialization, I demonstrated the ways in which the most influential figures of the debate used it as a method of re-establishing and reinforcing the credibility of natural history, and their own positions within it. I also observed that in their mockery of the wild animal story, Burroughs and Roosevelt relied on the negative associations between anthropomorphism, sentimentality, childishness, effeminacy, ignorance, amateurism, and the perceived weakness of the urban middle- classes. Thus, I provided further evidence for the formulation of the genre’s Allmark-Kent 254 reputation as ‘embarrassing.’ I also offered an innovative, new interpretation of the Nature Fakers controversy. In the chapter, “Realistic Representations,” my analyses of Return to the Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
Ma'lumotlar bazasi mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan ©fayllar.org 2024
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling