The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
Reciprocal Communication and Practical Zoocentrism
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Allmark-KentC
Reciprocal Communication and Practical Zoocentrism
A century separates the publications of Wild Animals I Have Known (1898) and White as the Waves (1999). Although their styles may seem to differ, I have demonstrated their shared aims and characteristics, the most significant of which is the attempt to produce a scientifically-informed, zoocentric speculation. Comparing these texts illuminates the importance of the contexts in which they were written and received. Seton’s realistic, “true” stories (Known 9) caused a four year controversy in which the President of America called him a “nature faker,” an “object of derision to every scientist” (Roosevelt 193). Whereas , Baird’s fantastical, “speculative” text (Baird 275) rings “true” for a whale biologist, who believes that it may “come closer to the natures of these animals than the coarse numerical abstractions” that come from his own “scientific observations” (Whitehead 370). The historical scope of practical zoocriticism enables us to perceive the exceptional nature of Whitehead’s suggestion that the “communication” between writers and scientific researchers “should be reciprocal” (370). Moreover, my framework’s foundation in animal studies helps to emphasize the productive cross-disciplinary potential in his proposal. Likewise, Marc Bekoff concludes an article for the journal BioScience with a similar vision for cognitive ethology. He suggests that the resources required for the “rigorous study of animal emotions” could include: “researchers in various scientific disciplines who provide ‘hard data’ and anecdotes,” “other scholars who study animals,” and “nonacademics [sic] who observe animals and tell stories” (869). It is useful to recall, here, John Simons’ remark that “the imaginative and speculative acts of literature” coming “closest to the animal experience itself” deserve recognition (7). I propose that reciprocal engagement Allmark-Kent 258 between literary animal studies and cognitive ethology would aid our assessment of successfully zoocentric texts, whilst providing imaginative and speculative tools for scientists. As indicated by Bekoff, the controversial study of animal emotions makes this exchange all the more important. In his introduction to When Elephants Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals (1995), Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson states: Surely we can train ourselves to an empathic imaginative sympathy for another species. Taught what to look for in facial features, gestures, postures, behavior, we could learn to be more open and more sensitive. We need to exercise our imaginative faculties, stretch them beyond where they have already taken us, and observe things we have never been able to see before. We need not be limited by ourselves as the reference point, by what has already been written, by the existing consensus among scientists. What do we have to lose in taking the imaginative leap to broaden our sympathies and our horizons? (xxi-xxii, emphasis added) I contend that the “imaginative and speculative acts” (Simons 7) of zoocentric literature can help us to “exercise our imaginative faculties” and “stretch them to beyond where they have already taken us” (Masson xxi-xxii). Through cross- disciplinary exchange, moreover, practical zoocriticism could indicate the direction of future speculations that would enable us to “observe things we have never been able to see be fore” (xxii). For instance, a topic that remains surprisingly controversial is that of nonhuman pleasure. In an article for the journal of Applied Animal Behaviour Science entitled “Animal Pleasure and its Moral Significance,” Jonathan Balcombe argues for the serious ethological study of pleasure, as it is currently “under-represented” (209). Pleasure is “beneficial,” a “product of evolution” which rewards the “individual for performing behaviours that promote survival and procreation” (209-10). More importantly, perhaps, pleasure also indicates that a life has “intrinsic value,” that it is “worth living” (214). The ethical Allmark-Kent 259 implications of pleasure are profound and thus, I suggest, its representation in zoocentric fiction is crucial. The wild animal stories, and realistic and speculative texts that constitute the focus of this thesis all include various depictions of nonhuman pleasure. A clear omission, however, is representations of sex as a pleasurable act. Indeed, it is difficult to find any depictions of non- reproductive sex in any zoocentric literature. Balcombe explains: Many animals routinely copulate or engage in other sexual activities outside of the breeding season, including during pregnancy, menstruation (in mammals), and egg incubation. Such non-procreative activity may even constitute a large proportion of the animals’ sexual behaviour [...] Variations on non-copulatory mounting, include: mounts without erection, mounts with erection (but with no penetration), reverse mounting in which a female mounts a male, mounting from the side or in positions from which penetration is impossible […] Animals also engage in various forms of oral sex, stimulation of partner’s genitals using the hands, paws, or flippers, and various forms of anal stimulation. (212) Crucially, he also makes it clear that most biologists “recognize same-sex sexual interactions as being part of the normal, routine behavioural repertoire of the animals who engage in it” (212). So I propose that if zoocentric literature is committed t o producing the imaginative acts that come “closest to the animal experience itself” (Simons 7), its authors must be willing to follow the animal’s lead. If, as Marion Copeland asserted, they are to “interpret the stories of other living beings for human r eaders” (277), they must be willing to shrug off anthropocentric sensibilities in order to ponder the difficult questions of scientists: “What, then, might be said of the role of pleasure in animals’ sex lives ” (Balcombe 212)? In closing, it is worth noting that the current structure of practical zoocriticism does not leave much room for the inclusion of other contexts. For instance, most of the twentieth-century realistic and speculative texts acknowledged (to differing extents) the relationship between North American colonization and species loss. The historical perspective of Last of the Curlews Allmark-Kent 260 make this abundantly clear, whereas others, like Return to the River or White as Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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