Theoretical problems of studying space in language consciousness 10

3.3. Comparison of the functioning of language units in different languages
The study of any national language includes two areas: the first is intra – structural and the second is socio-functional. Currently, linguistic science is characterized by a functional approach to the study of language phenomena, which consists in moving from a statistical description of the language system to studies of the real functioning of language units in speech.
Learning to master a language is inextricably linked with the transfer of the semantic content of one language to another.
We have considered the most important typical ways of indicating location and direction, and also identified the most significant differences between them in different languages, namely in Russian, English and Uzbek.
When comparing the ways of expressing the category of space in Russian, English and Uzbek, one should rely on the concept of typological categories, which were designed to compare languages, which is based on the general idea of the relationship and interaction of significant elements of different levels of the compared languages. Comparisons of the functioning of language units in languages of different systems become particularly relevant, because the studied languages reflect the same extra-linguistic world.
Let us consider morphological and syntactic means of expressing spatial relations in Russian, English,and Uzbek. In terms of the mental category, the category of space (locativity) is universal, its status is determined by the reflection of spatial relations in the minds of people. In any language, this mental category finds one or another expression. Locativity or localization is a logical operation of the relation of an object to a locum, i.e. objects of space, spatial landmarks, or between the spatial features of these objects. It is expressed in terms of directions, for example,forward-backward, up-down, left-rightin Russianforward–backward, up –down,left-rightin English oldinga-orkaga, yukoriga-pastga, chapga-ynggain Uzbek;about distances:close – farin Uzbek. – farin English; Russian;closer ; yakinrok-uzokrokin Uzbek;about the location, for example,in the middlein Russian ; yrtasida in Uzbek;about the length of space objects:long – short, high – lowin Russianlong - short, high-low in English uzun-kiska, baland-pastin Uzbek;and so on.
Russian, English and Uzbek languages are typologically and genetically fundamentally different. The distinctive features of these languages are explained by the specifics of their structure. The comparative-typological method of research allows us to identify general and specific, typological convergences and discrepancies at different levels of the language, especially in syntax. Since the most general, universal categories of human thinking are fixed in the categories of syntax.
The designation of spatial relations by means of a simple sentence is used to denote the object or place relative to which the movement is performed and marked. Such an object is most often denoted by an adverb and noun. Adverbs, which have a pragmatic function in a language, are one of the means that ensuretransition from a language as a system to a language as a set interacting speech units.
In English, adverbs are an immutable class of words, with the exception of a limited number of adverbs that form forms of degrees of comparison. Despite the fact that adverbs are one of the traditional significant parts of speech, these include words that are very heterogeneous both in their meaning and in their functions.39 In English, circumstantial adverbs indicate the space where an action is performed or a state exists. The adverbs of place express not only the place where the action takes place, but also indicate the direction of the action. Depending on the content of the sentence and the semantics of the verb, most adverbs in this group can be used in both meanings. Adverbs of place used with verbs of movement acquire the semantics of direction. In English, there are only two types of adverbs that indicate only the direction, these are adverbs with a suffix- ward (s) and adverbs that are homonymous with nouns. According to the morphological structure, English adverbs are divided into four main groups:: 1) simple: in "in", on "on", out "out, out", here "here", there "there", behind "behind"; 2) derivatives: homeward(s) "towards home", forward(s) "towards forward", afar "from afar, in the distance", beside "near, near, near, to the side", below "under, below, below"; 3) complex somewhere "somehow", anywhere "somewhere", inside" inside"; 4) composite: for certain "for sure", to and fro "back and forth", for once "once upon a time"40.
Adverbs of place are mostly represented by simple adverbs that are not derived for the current state of the language, for example:in "in, inside", off "away", out "out, out", up "on, over", on "on", here "here", there "there". Derived adverbs of places and directions are represented by prefix and suffix formations. Most of them are formed by the suffix-ward(s)from the noun bases, for example:backward(s) "back, in the direction of back"; homeward(s) "in the direction of home"; downward(s) "in the direction of down"; forward (s) "in the direction of forward". The smaller part is formed by the prefixbe-from the bases of adjectives and nouns, for example: below "under, below, below"from the adjectivelow "lower"; beside "near, near, near to the side"from the nounside "side, side". Complex adverbs directions and places are represented by the following combinations: a) pronouns and pronominal adverbs:anywhere,somewhere; c) prepositions and nouns:inside, upstairs, overhead; c) adverbs of the adverb:southwest. Compound adverbs of a place are represented by combinations of a service word with a significant word, for example: to and fro "back and forth". Adverbs of place refer to circumstantial adverbs.
V. V. Vinogradov states that circumstantial adverbs do not have a specific connection with any word in the sentence, they relate to the entire sentence as a whole41.
A. G. Rashidova does not share this point of view. She writes that the question of the syntactic status (syntactic functions) of adverbs has received ambiguous coverage. It is a very popular opinion in English that it is customary to use adverbs in two functions: circumstances and definitions: I went outside today(circumstance of place and time),The journey done(definition)42.
An adverb in Russian, as an unchangeable part of speech, clearly differs from other significant words. For example,raise your face (where?) up; take (where?) right; turns blue (where?) far away; put (where?) in the middle; growing (where?) left; visible (from where?) from afar; creeping (where?) around; let's go (where?) to the right; not visible (where?) far away; ran (where?) towards; stayed (where?) behind; sitting (where?) home; go back (where?) home; sails (from where?) from afar; falling (from where?) top; put (where?) from below; growing (where?) up; go down (where?) down; attach (where?) sideways; stand (where?) about; see (where?) near; sit down (where?) nearby, etc.
In a sentence, it most often explains the verb and does not have dependent words that belong to other parts of speech. Let's ask a detailed question about the place adverb as a full member of the sentence. The preposition derived from it is usually used together with a noun or pronoun in the genitive case and loses its grammatical and syntactic independence. It is impossible to ask a syntactic question about it separately, since the preposition as a service part of speech is not a member of the sentence itself, but only paired with the word whose case form it helps to create. For example,gloomy spruce forest could be seen (where?) ahead. A gloomy spruce forest could be seen (where?) in front of the car. It's cool and damp inside. The cellar is cool and damp inside. Our enemy was standing opposite. Our enemy was standing opposite the city.
It should be noted that in the Uzbek language, the question of the category of adverbs is still controversial and not fully resolved. Nouns indirect cases, qualitative adjectives, and other parts of speech that perform the functions of various circumstances in a sentence are sometimes referred to as nouns and adjectives, or as adverbs in Uzbek language textbooks.
Adverbs that are included in the functional-semantic field of space in Russian, English, and Uzbek languages denotethe: means of objectively oriented indication, for example:here, here, there;here,there; bu erda, u erda, etc.; means of subjective-objective indication, when the semantics of adverbs reflect the location of objects relative to each other. friend:below, above, near, far;below,above,near,far; pastda, yukorida, yakinda, uzokda, etc.; means of indicating the mutual position of objects not in reality, but in the speaker's imagination:where, where. Therefore, they qualify as circumstantial adverbs of place that answer the questionswhere? Where? from where? inRussian;kaerda? қаерга? қаердан? in the Uzbek language. By the nature of the expression, Uzbek adverbs differ significantly from Russian: the meanings of Russian adverbs, which indicate the location and direction of action, are transmitted in the Uzbek language most often by the adverbs of place (yrin ravishlari), although their morphological characteristics cannot be attributed to adverbs, because they are formed from nouns, pronouns and adjectives by adding the corresponding case suffixes to them:tam-u yerda, down-pastga, on the contrary-paradan, etc.
A characteristic feature of Russian adverbs of location and direction of action is that when they are formed, in some cases one of the nominal forms is separated from the inflection system and simultaneously reinterpreted on the basis of a new function of the word, for example: of case forms and by turning them together with prepositions into separate words, for example:front, from far, to the left, from above, from there, from nowhere.
In the Uzbek language, depending on the utterance, other case affixes can easily be added to the base of the word. ForUzbek language, the main signals of grammatical relations are affix morphemes.
The place of action or direction of movement of objects in the Uzbek language is expressed in most cases by the corresponding word-forming units, for example, affixes in the Uzbek language:- yes(local case)-enida(side, near),oldida(front),yakinida(nearby): Уйимнинг ёнида янги бино очилди. -A was opened near our house.;- dan (original case) -uzokdan (from afar, from afar), ichkaridan (from inside),tepadan (from above):Bizningimiz uzokdan kyrinadi. –Our university is visible from afar.;-ga (plural) -pastga(down),chapga(left),аллақаерга (куда-то) и др.: Биз пастга қараб югуриб кетдик. "We ran downstairs. The addition of word-forming units is also observed in Russian, although here prepositions have already merged with nouns in the forms of indirect cases:afar, below, far away, sideways, nearby, etc. Russian adverbs, which are a frozen form of the instrumental case of nouns, are transmitted in the Uzbek language by suffixes of the local and original cases, as well as by lexical means:field-dala bilan,dala orkali; shore –kirgok byylab, etc.
The meaning of the location of the object and movement in the locum, the final and initial points of movement,which are denotedin Russian by an adverb, in Uzbek are denoted by lexical means and adverbial words that easily take the case affixes-ga, -da, -dan. When comparing Russian spatial adverbs with their Uzbek equivalents, cases of double interpretation of connections were revealed. For example, in Russian, the constructionsclose tohomeandclose tohometransmitted in the same way in Uzbek –uyga yakin, although the prepositional forms of their transmission in Russian are different: genitive and dative cases. The verbal form of expressing the reference distance made from different points by means of the Russian language is transmitted in different ways: 1)close tohome-count down fromhome; 2)close tohome–count down from a place that is . In the Uzbek language, the semantics of the yakin adverb (close) allows you to count only from a place that is ). And vice versa. A combinationleft of the roadand the likeo/ of the building,etc. It can have two equivalents in the Uzbek language:yldan ynga,yldan chapga. This depends on the semantics of the Russian verb being explained: whether it is a verb of finding, staying, or moving. For example:left of the road isuniversity. -Yldan chapda(chap tomonda)University; Suddenlyhelicopterbegan to turn sharply to the left. – Бирдан вертолёт чапга (чап томонга) кескин бурилишни бошлади. The meaning of a Russian adverbthat governsnoun can be transmitted in Uzbek using service names. For example:child sat down next to the mother. – Бола онасининг ёнига ўтирди. The service nameen, being capacious in semantics, conveys the meanings of the Russian prepositionsk, pri, about, podle, nearand adverbsnear, taking the corresponding case affixes.
In many cases, the meanings of Russian control adverbs in the Uzbek language, due to their lack of one-word equivalents, are transmitted descriptively. In such cases, there is no need to talk about the analogy between the Russian and Uzbek constructions:half-turned toeach-dystiga yakin burilgan holda(dosl.:in a half-turned positionto each), etc.Comparison shows that in Russian, adverbial control covers a wider range of words than in Uzbek.
Let's analyze the location of the object and the direction of action within the locum in Russian and Uzbek.
When indicating the location of an object and the direction of action within the locum, there is a correlation between the ways of expressing a place and a route, for example:stand near the house(place)– drive near the house(route), that is, the difference between them is revealed at the level of construction, that isplaceusedfor stay verbs in the broad sense, route - for directional verbs movements and movements.
Location of an object on the surface of a locum, for example,in Russian, the na is translated into Uzbek as ustida, tepasida, buyida, tarafida, tomonda. Live in the south. – Жанубда (Жануб томонда) яшамоқ. The map is hanging on the wall. – Карта деворда осиқлик турибди. I found myself on a street I didn't recognize. – Мен нотаниш кўчага бориб қолдим.
Location of the object inside the locum. The preposition v in the Uzbek language means ichida. Be in the room. – Хонада бўлмоқ. Live in Bukhara. – Бухорода яшамоқ.
Location of the object near the locum. The prepositionsu, near, aboutin the Uzbek language are transmitted asenida, oldida, yakin joida. Stop at the door. – Эшикнинг олдида тўхтаб қолмоқ. Rustam lives near us. – Рустам бизнинг ёнимизда туради. table is near the window. – Стол дераза олдида турибди. Sit down next to me. – Менинг ёнимга ўтир.
The location of the object in the center of some space. Prepositionswithredi, in the middlein the Uzbek language are transmitted asyrtasida, orasida. Stop in the middleaudience. – Аудитория ўртасида тўхтамоқ. The house is surrounded by trees. – Уй дарахатлар ўртасида жойлашган.
Location of an object in a circle or circle of something. The preposition around in the Uzbek language yk is translated as atrofida/ - ga/, buylab. The Earth revolves around the Sun. – Ер Қуёш атрофида айланади. Plant trees around the house. – Уй атрофига дарахтлар ўтказмоқ. Travel around the world. – Дунё бўйлб саёҳат қилиш.
The object's proximity to a particular location. Prepositionunderin Russian, in Uzbek languageatrofida, enida, yakinida. many fruit orchards near Tashkent. –Тошкент атрофида мевали боғлар кўп. The holiday home is located near Samarkand. – Дам олиш уйи Самарқанд яқинида жойлашган.
Location of an object where someone or something is located on the opposite side. In Russian, the prepositions , are askarshisida, ryparasida. Garden facing the house. – Боғ уйнинг қаршисида. There is a post office opposite the school. – Мактаб қаршисида/рўпарасида почта бор.
Staying, finding someone or something on top of, above the locum. Means of expressing the meaning of the prepositionoverin Russian, and in Uzbek tepasida, ustida. The lamp hangs over the table. – Стол тепасида лампа/чироқ осилиб турибди. Birds fly over the lake. – Кўл бўйида қушлар учиб юрибди.
Location of the object or person in front of whom something is located or is being committed. The prepositionbeforein the Uzbek language meansoldida, enida, karshisida, ryparasida. Stand in front of the door. – Эшик олдида турмоқ. Garden in front of the house. – Уйнинг рўпарасида боғ.
Location of the object around something. The prepositionzatransmitted in the Uzbek as atrofida, atrofiga. The children were sitting at the table. – Болалар стол атрофида ўтирар эдилар.
Location of one item under another. The prepositionunder translated into the Uzbek language asostida, tagida. bag is under the table. - Tagida's desk bag. The gardener sleeps under a tree. – Боғбон дарахт тагида ухлаяпти.
The prepositionbetween means " the location of an object or manifestation of an action in the interval, in the middle of the locum." In the Uzbek language, it is transmitted asyrtasida/ga, orasida/ga oraligida/ga There was a cabinet between the window and the door. – Дераза билан эшик оралиғига шкаф қўйилган эди. Between the trees. – Дарахтлар орасида.
The prepositionformeans"finding an object or person behind someone or something". In Uzbek, it meansorkasida / ha Alisherhid behind a tree. – Алишер дарахт орқасига яширинди.
All the listedtypes of semantics of location and direction of movement within the locum occur in both languages, but they are transmitted by language means that fully or partially coincide in the way of expression. In both languages, language means are expressed in the accusative case when they completely coincide, since it depends on the semantics of the verb; and in case of partial coincidence, language means depend on the controlled verb and the situation, since such meanings are indicated in Russian by the prepositionson, in, at, near, about, around, among,which control the genitive case, and prepositionsbefore, over, under, for, between,which control the creative case, and in Uzbek-nouns in the form of local and unformed possessive cases in combination with postpositions and formative suffixes:near the school – maktab oldida, hanging on the wall-devorda osilib turibdi; c) do not match when using verbs states and for action verbs, one meaning is replaced by another:I was(the verb indicates a state) (where?) on a street I. When translating this sentence into Uzbekyk, the verb means action and from it we put the question kaerga? (where to) Мен нотаниш кўчага бориб қолдим. In both languages, the direction of movement constructs preserve the values of general and specific copspace, in which the locum is, first, the starting point of movement, the place from which the action begins or extends ("start"); secondly, the final point of movement to which the action is directed ("finish"), and in which the locum is located.- third, a traffic route, when the locum only partially coincides with the traffic boundaries ("highway"). But these basic values are expressed differently:
1. The names are combined with the constructs of the "finish" group (where to?), which means: 1)directional movement, for example, k + rod. p. The train was approaching the station. – Поезд станцияга яқинлашмоқда. -gaindative-direct. p.;on + vin. p. Flight to the Moon. – Ойга чиқиш. - gav direct. p.; v + vin. p.Return to Uzbekistan. – Ўзбекистонга қайтиш. 2) the person to whom the action expressed by the verb of movementdirected GDk Farhadgoes to his friend. -Farhad dystinikiga ketayapti. 3) an the the space separating one point from another, for example,up to + genit. p. The university is2km away. – Университетгача 2 километр қолди. -gacha(-ga)in the direction of the item to the lower part of the item: under + vin. Put boxunder the bed andbagunder the table. – Қутини каравот остига, сумкани эса стол тагига қўй. 5 – Болалар мактабга бораяптилар. -gav direct. p.;na + vin. p. Climb the glacier– - directed action:b + vin. p.toa music school. – Мусиқа мактабига қабул қилиш. -ga v direct. p.;na + vin. p. na + vin.p. Look at the star. – Юлдузга қарамоқ. 7) passage, communication path, for example, in vo) + . p O kna go to the courtyard. – Деразалар ҳовлига қараб очилади. - gav direct. p.;v + vin. p. We stopped at the entrance to the village.– Қишлоққа кираверишда тухтадик. -kain egavit. p.; 8)document:b + vin. p.Boughtticket to the theater-Theatrga ticket oldik -dain e.g.it. p.; 9) meanstransport: on / in + vin. p.Poezd onTashkent/ inTashkent. -Toshkenga ketayetgan train. pPto the editorial office of the journal. – Журнал таҳриятига езилган хат. -gain the direction of p.; 11)liscwith complicated values: a) community + vin. p. v + vin. p.Kto the national team of Tashkent. – Тошкент терма жамоасига номзод. -dain directpn. b) spatially-targeted I can't go to rehearsal today. – Бугун репетицияга боролмайма.
- gain direcit. p.
2. Names are combined with the constructs of the start group (from where?), which means: 1) the beginning of the movement, for example,from + rod. n. Our pen pals from Russia will be visiting us for the holidays. – Таътилда бизникига Россиядан хат езиб турадиган дўстларимиз келишади. - The rocket was launched from the Moon. - Oidan launch oldie rocket. - givenin ex. p.; 2) action from inside the object:from + rod. p. You still haven't taken your things out of your suitcase?" – Нарсаларни чамадондан ҳалиям чиқармадингми? - givenin ext. p.; 3) indication of the starting point of the action:from + gen. p. Step away from the window. – Деразадан нари туринглар. - givenin ex. p.; 4) direction of movement from the surface:c (co) + rod. p. A cup fell from the table. - Scythe table ustidan tushib ketdi. i. p. + ustidanin the original case; 5) visual, speech and active action:c + gender. p. View from a height. Telescopic searches from Earth. – Баладликдан қараш. Ердан туриб телескопик изланиш олиб бориш. - givenin ex. p.; 6) natural phenomenon:s + rod. p. Wind from the sea. - Dengizdan esayetgae shamol. - givenin ex. p.; 7) substance or object:from + rod. p. Coal from dumps. – Палахса қатламдан олинган кўмир. - givenin the original case; 8) transport:from + gender. n. Plane from Samarkand. – Самарқандан келаетган поезд. - givenin ext. p.; 9) correspondence:from + rod. p. Letter from the editorial office of the journal. - Tahriyatidan kelgan hut magazine. - givenin ext. p.; 10) person: a) as a designation of profession:from + rod. p. Doctors who came from Uzbekistan-Yzbekistondan kelgan shifokorlar. - givenin ex. p. b) as a designation of kinshiprelationsetc.from + rod. p.Uncle from Bukhara. - Bukhorolik to gam;) names, such as newcomer, native: c + gender.P. is a native of the North. - Kelib chikishi Shimollik; from + rod. p. Visitors from the surrounding area. – Атроф шахарлардан келган одамлар. - givenin ex.p.
3. Names are combined with constructs of the "route" group (where?),whichmeans: 1)directional movement on the surface, for example,on + dat. p. The bus was traveling on a high road.-Bus katta yldan borar edi. -givenin ex. p.;according to + dat. p. The boy was walking along a narrow path.-Bola tor sykmok yyldan borar edi. i.p. + bilan(postposition); 3)place of action, for example,on + dat. p. We walked in the park.– Биз боғда айланиб юрдик. -dain the localcase; 4) of an action that occurson various objects:by + dat.p We went to theparks. -Biz parklarga bordik. - ga indative-directsельном case; 5)movement along something:by + dat. p Tourists were walking along the left bank of the river. -SaeатAtchilar daring chap kirgogi byilab borar edi. vin. p. + builab;along + rod.p. Participants of the hike walked along the river bank. -Hike katnashchilari dare byilab borar edilar. vin. v. + byilab; 6) way of communication:by + dat. p. Go along the street. – Кўчадан бормоқ. - givenin ext. p.; 7) place crossed by traffic:after + vin.p. The girls crossed the street. – Қизлар кўчадан ўтишди. - givenin ex. p.; tvor. p. without a preposition. We walked through the forest. - Biz yrmon bilan / orkali borar edik. vin. p. + bilan/orkali; 8) performing an action:group of cyclists passed by our house + road. p. – Уйимиз енидан/олдидан бир гуруҳ велосипедчилар ўтиб кетди. enidan/oldidanin ext. p.
As can be seen from the above examples, the various shades of meanings of the expression of the direction of movement, which take place in both languages, are realized by non-equivalent language means, which explains the great difficulties of students ' assimilation of national groups of speech implementations of the category of space, for example, a) words of the group "finish" with prepositions on, in, under in the accusative case, to, before in the genitive case. In the Uzbek language, this meaning mainly corresponds to nouns in the directional case with the affix-ga, for example: Sinfimizga yangi ykuvchi keldi. – A new student came to our class; b) words of the group "start" with prepositionsfrom, to, within the genitive case, which in the Uzbek language are transmitted by postpositions in the original case with the affix-dan:Bizga Toshkentdan yangi kitoblar olib kelishdi. – They brought us books from Tashkent. When expressing the direction of movement in the Uzbek language for the group "finish" and "start", which denote means of transport and correspondence, and the group "start", which denotes natural phenomena, substances or objects, the obligatory component is the participle in the form of the present and past tense, which are expressed depending on the direction of movement in the directional or Original cases:Fargonaga ketayetgan train. - Train leaving for Ferghana. Қашқадаредан келган самолет. - A plane that arrived from Kashkadarya. Dengizdan esayetgan shamol. - Wind blowing from the sea; c) words of the group "highway" with the prepositionsby, by, through, along,which in the Uzbek language correspond to various grammatical means that do not coincide in form with the dative, genitive and creative cases and are transmitted by a combination of the forms of the initial, directional cases and postpositionsbyylab, bilan/orkali, enidan/oldidan,example, go downstream. – Дарёнинг оқими билан сузмоқдамиз.
When denoting spatial relations by means of a simple sentence, it is equally important to denote the action of a person or object using verbs of movement. Verbs of movement–this groupone of the most common in different areas of communication and quite universal in use, for example,go-walk, go-ride, etc Verbs of movementare among the most active in the word-forming relation.
In our study, placement verbs are understood as a group of verbs that are related semantically, morphologically, and categorically. This group indicates the process performed by a person to place an object in a certain spatial position.
Despite the fact that significance in the process of categorizing spatial relations is widely represented in the vocabulary, verbs of movement and placement have not yet received wide coverage in linguistic works. The proposed analysis of verbs in Russian, Uzbek, and English from the perspective of functional-semantic and cognitive approaches is based on the understanding of "the essence of language activity through the prism of language diversity".
The study of prefixed verbs significantly expands the potential vocabularyof , since the communicative significance of this group of verbs is extremely high. Knowledge of verbs of movement is necessary in communication already at the initial stage of training. Comparative characteristics of verbs of movement in the Russian and Uzbek languages suggest that analytical constructions with verbs of movement have two semantics: they express modes of action and spatial orientation. Individual differences in the semantics of analytical constructions with verbs of movement are explained by differences in the semantics of polysemous auxiliary verbs and their compatibility with different lexical categories of the verb.
The comparative analysis of the semantics of the means of expressing spatial relations in languages of different systems conducted for educational purposes convinces us of the expediency of further studying this linguistically complex and communicatively extremely significant phenomenon. Our analysis allows us to state in most cases, on the one hand, the coincidence of meanings in the category of spatiality in two languages, but on the other-a significant discrepancy in the means of formatting statements of the corresponding semantic type. Differences in speech implementations of spatial relations should aim linguists and methodologists to develop a scientifically based learning model that provides for systematic prevention of possible errors in the use of means of expressing spatial forms in the process of communication with the installation of students ' consciousness, reasonable use of interlingual and intra-linguistic comparisons and comparisons, organization of intensive speech practice of students on personally and socially significant extralinguistic material.