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- 2.9.5 Simulation of wind speed
m =0.38524 m =0;37 -+- Sim . ....
0 5 c:JObs . ...
m =0.33908
m =0:3672
.. ' '0'
....•... s' .' ..•...... ... m =0.26451 m =0:23643
. "'0' ....•...
5' .' ......•..... . .
~0=0.318~7 55=0.?9997 .. '
. ...
m =0.38668 m =0:40232 . ...
' '0' s .. '
, . .. . . . . . . . mo:=O.;277Q~ . f!ls =:=q:?~~~6 .. : . . . . 5 =0.35445 5 =0.36103 .•.
f? ..••. : •••
5 ' : . ....
0.4 0.2
o o o o o o o o 0.2 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.4
0.4 o o 0.6 0.2
0.2 ....
m =0.39749 m =0:39874 . ...
' -() s .. '
. . . . s =0.41084 5 =0.41345 '0 . 5 . 0.8 0.4 0.6
Cloudiness . . . ~0=0.417D:2 55=0.~1705 0.2
. . . . m =0.38248 m =0:37536 . . . ,',0' ....•... s .. '
. 0.2
o o 0.4 0.8 0.4
0.6 Cloudiness 0.2 o
0.2 0.4
Figure 2-25: Observed and sin1ulated cloud cover distribution (Tulsa,
OK). SYlnbols
m and s are the Inean and standard deviation values, correspondingly, for the observed (su b- index "0") and sinlulated (su b- index "s") data. 134
25 25 25 25 25 20 20 20 20 20 10 15 June 10 15 August 10 15 October 10 15 December 10 15 Hour 5 5 5 5 5 o . . . .
o o
o o 30 .... :~ ..,c~: : . (", ~~ . ~.~ .. ~ o 20 ~~,:.;:..,:. ":. "
' ,~ a ~~: : : J? 20 . .... . ~ 20 .' ' :..•..... : i;;;. -:- '.. o - a ~ " r. 10~
: : : . Mt!r~~ .. ".. o o 20 February
20 10 0 a 0 -10 0 5 10 15 20 25 April 0 a 25 25 20 20 10 15 September 10 15 Hour 5 5 I\J\I\I\AI\I\AA;"'~I\I\AA o 10 . o : :~: 010~
~~" : ~ 0'------'--"----'-----'----"-----' o 5 10 15 20 25 40 May 20 :~.:;>.c;.- ...~. o
~ , -
~"" . a ..,... .
,.,~~ ". ~ _''''~. r _ ~~~=~'
. . . . b-A/).....M~6~Al\ o '------"--_--'-- __ "---_---"- __ -J o 5 10 15 20 25 40 July -10 '--_--'- __ ....L..- __ L--_--'-
__ -' o 5 10 15 20 25 March January : ~......~~'-..:.= ~::: . ~~~. - ....
~ .t __
-.' ~
. ~ ~ ,oi:l
020~~' , . a ~ . o o 30 20 ...
o a 20 r-------,---.-------,.-----, -e-
Obs. mean ~- Obs. std p 1:!E3:
~.-z- •. , . -~:'
.. -: ... ~ Figure 2-26: Observed and silnulated daily cycles of air temperature and its standard deviation (Albuquerque, NNI). 136
25 25 25 25 20 20 20 20 February 10 15 October 10 15 June 10 15 April 5 5 5 o o 30 30 .. 20 ...... :....
riff). .~.. :.... -.. ~~.
' ~~.
10 : . ~~~ o o 40 10 AtMI:0A6MM4l ... M~ o o 5 10 15 20 25 40 August 30 cP 20 ,;,.:
- ~ cP 20 ~?'.
~ : : ~. () o 20 () o () 20 o 25 25 25 20 20 20 10 15 November
5 ..~h.MMh.~~ 5 10
September January
-e- Obs. mean ---l:::. - Obs. std
-e- Sim. mean --1:::.- Sim. std
o o 10 : : : : .
o o
30 o o 5 10 15 March 30 ,----..---...-----..---...------, 30 10
o 30 : : ~ .. • _:_'.- •• -4Iiii: 20 ~~t!l~ : ' ~ .. cP -~.: : : .... 10 ' ' . Al~j6~.tJ.~6l~l\~6~A~ o o 5 10 15 20 25 40 July ~.-:
: ~ -~~- ~ •..
:~ cP 20 ' . 20 () o 20 ..........•...... ~ . () .. : ;~--: -~-~ °10~
O'-------'---....L..-----'---'-------J o 5 10 .15
20 25 May 20 () o 5 10 15 Hour 20 25 20 . cP : ~_ 10~ O'------'---..&......-----L.----'-------J o 5 10 15 20 25 Hour
Figure 2-27: Observed and sinlulated daily cycles of air telnperature and its standard deviation (Tucson, AZ). 137
January 25 20 10 15 April 5 o 30 20 : ~ : : . February
25 20 , , . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . , ,
5 10 15 March 30 .-------r---~-____.--__r_-_____. o 20 -e- Obs. mean ~- Obs. std -e- Sim. mean !? 10
Sim. std 20 ()~' : ~--~
' o
10-. "".",
" . • • --:.~ . , . OL.-----'----"-----'-----'-----' o 5
" 15 20 25 30 May
20 () o 20 () o 10 .. , . AAAM6~
o o 5 10 15 20 25 June
30 ..•
~ 20 ~~:
: ~ ".,. () o
' : : : . ~64M
OL----'----"-----'-----'-----J o 5 10 15 20 25 40 August 25 20 15 10 Jul
5 10 " : :- : . ~M~~MI:1~ o o
!? 20 " "., ' , . 25 25 20 20 10 15 October
10 15 December -: 5 5 10 : -: : . hJiA~~
.... o o . " ~ o o 30 20 () o 25 20 10 15 November
5 , .. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
. . . ~ . . . . o o 30 10 0AA/V:\~ o 5 10 15 20 25 30 September 20 () o 20 " :." ; : : . 20 . " " " .... ()~._.,...,. o .. 10 ....... ':":'"
..... :.....
o o 5 10 15 20 25 Hour
o 5 10 15 Hour
20 25 Figure 2-28: Observed and simulated daily cycles of air temperature and its standard deviation (Tulsa,
138
a) 30 -e- Obs. mean : 20 -6.- Obs. std .. -e- Sim. mean .P -6.- Sim. std 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 b) c) d) Figure 2-29: Observed and simulated mean values of air and dew point tempera- ture and their standard deviations (Albuquerque, NM). Mean monthly
values and daily standard deviation of: a.) air temperature; b.) maximum air temperature; c.) minimum air temperature; d.) dew point temperature; e.) maximum dew point tenlperature;and f.)
minimum dew point temperature. 139
a) 40 2 3 4 5 6 e) 7 8 9 10 11 12 2°I"" :~N: '1 !? 10~ _ ~ __ ~ ~ _~ __ ~_/~ .•.... :~--4.~_
....~- X - -..:;:.- -.:.: - .......
-- -~ ~ - =-L,!r- ~::=.::
e - -~ -,_- - "- w~~ ' .. : ' : :-ip
I i_~i
i i" J -e- Obs. mean -6- Obs. std
-e-- Sim. mean J? 20
Sim. std ct- X A A A A ... LI~ - ~- - ~ - -L:::- - ~- - t=.
- -.6:- -
~ - -!;z o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 40C1 I I I ~~~ ~ I:]
~~~-~~ . () 20 o~~~~ : : ~.~, . o ~ ~ .. : : : . ~ J- -
-.J'- - l' - -
b- ~- - 4> ~4r
= ~ ~ ~ ~ - -~ -4' - - 4, 1 2 3 4 5 6 c) 7 8 9 10 11 12 30 ~ I I , I ~ .~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ,..~~. 20 ~~ ~~~ : . J? .~: : ~ 10.,---=-~ ~'_~"
..... :" . ': :' .~ lS~:\ off
- ~- - I - -0/ -
-~= - ~ - -"~=
=~~ - 4: - -~- - ~ - -'T' 1 2 3 4 5 6 d) 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 10 !? J=~==O~ = 1 2 3 4 5 6 f) 7 8 9 10 11 12 20 10 () lh- ...0.- =~=
0 ~- OX' .......... .. , -10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Month
Figure 2-30:
Observed and silnulated lnean values of air and dew point telnperature and their standard deviations (Tucson, AZ).
:NIean nlonthly values and daily standard deviation of: a.) air tenlperature; b.)
nlaxinlunl air tenlperature; c.) lninimunl air
tClnperature; d.) dew point telnperature; e.) maxinllun dew point tenlperature; and f.)
lnininlunl clew point temperature. 140
12 11 10 9 8 6 c) 7 5 4 3 2 a) 30 -e- Obs. mean 20 -6,- Obs. std () -e- Sim. mean 0 -ll- Sim. std 1 2 3 4 5 6 b) 7 8 9 10 11 12 30 .......... () 20
o () o 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 d) 7 6 7 e) 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . () o 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 f) 7 6 7 Month 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 Figure 2-31: Observed and simulated mean values of air and dew point temperature and their standard deviations (Tulsa,
Mean
monthly values and daily standard deviation of: a.) air temperature; b.) maximum air temperature; c.) minimum air temperature; d.) dew point temperature; e.) maximum dew point temperature; and
f.) minilllunldew point temperature ... 141
So ";2.0277
SI =.1.9388
mo = 3.8975 m l = 3.8326 25 20 15 mi.
10 0.05
0.15 0.1
0.25 0.2
Figure 2-32: The histogrmll of hourly wind speed from the observed and simulated data (Tucson, AZ). Syn1bols m and s are the mean and standard deviation values, correspondingly, for the observed (sub-index "0") and simulated (sub-index "s") data. 2.9.5 Simulation of wind speed As was discussed in Section 2.8, the frequency distribution of wind speed data is positively skewed. Both the skewness properties and the first two moments of the
distribution are preserved with the model (2.67). Figure 2-32 illustrates the wind speed histogran1s cOll1puted from the observed and simulated data.
The weather generator explicitly couples a number of simulated variables. Although the cross-correlation properties are not directly accounted for as, for example, in the model of Richardson (1981), it can be expected that all major weather variables should exhibit consistent co-variation. Figure 2-33 illustrates such interdependencies in a qualitative manner, using the results of simulation of the weather generator cali- brated for the location of Albuquerque (NM). Simulations start in August and extend through half of September. As can be seen in the figure, the cloudiness dynamics
correspond to precipitation events and the incoll1ing shortwave is correspondingly 142
a) 10 8 6 . '*I:
4 .. 2 ....
0 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
12 13
0.8 0.6
IOA 0.2
0 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Month Figure 2-34: Observed and simulated mean monthly precipitation occurrence and cloud cover (Albuquerque, NM): a.) mean number of storms; and b.) mean cloudiness. Figure 2-35: Observed and simulated mean monthly
precipitation occurrence and cloud cover (Thcson, OK): a.) mean
number of storms; and b.) mean cloudiness. 145
Figure 2-36: Observed and simulated mean monthly precipitation occurrence and
cloud cover (Tulsa, OK): a.) Inean number of storms; b.) mean cloudiness. -e-
Obs. max -e-
Obs. min -e-
Sim. max -e-
Sim. min () o 40 30 20 2 3 4 a) Rainy days 5 678 b) Rainless days 9 10 11 12 () o Figure 2-37: Mean maximum and minimum air temperatures derived from the ob- served and siInulated data (Albuquerque, NlVI)
on: a.) rainy days; and b.) rainless days.
146 Observed and simulated MAX and MIN temperatures on RAINY days (Tucson, AZ) 10 9 8 6 7 Month 30 . -e- Obs. max
-e- Obs. min
30 -e-
Sim. max -e-
Sim. min o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Observed and simulated MAX and MIN temperatures on RAINLESS days (Tucson, AZ) 40 40 10 cP 20 Figure 2-38: Mean maximum and lninilnum air telnperatures derived fronl the ob- served and simulated data (Tucson, AZ) on: a.) rainy days; and b.) rainless days. 12 11 10 9 8 6 7 Month 5 4 3 2 -10
1 a) 30 ............... . . 20 () 0 -10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 b) 30 20 () 0 Figure 2-39: Mean nlaxhnum and lninimum air temperatures derived froln the ob- served and sinlulated data (Tulsa, OK) on: a.) rainy days; and b.) rain less days. 147
a) o . -0.6 . -0.6 . _ -0.2 ~ N ~ -0.4 -15 o _ -0.2 ~ N ~ -0.4 -15
-10 -10
-5 -5 o b) o c) 5 5 10 .... ~. - Observed - Simulated . 10 15 15 o _ -0.2 ~ N ~ -0.4 -0.6
: - Observed
: - Simulated ..... . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. -15
-10 -5 o Day 5 10 15 Figure 2-40: Sample cross-correlation functions derived between the mean daily cloud cover and mean daily air temperature amplitude derived from the observed and sim- ulated data: a.) Tucson (AZ); b.) Tulsa (OK); and c.) Albuquerque (NM). 148
(a) (b)
250 200
150 100
Y, m 50 Figure 3-1: Voronoi diagranl and Voronoi polygon: a.) An example of Voronoi di- agraI11 constructed for the TIN of a real basin. The dashed lines define the edges that connect
nodes of the TIN (grey circles). The solid lines depict boundaries of Voronoi regions associated with the TIN nodes. b.)
Geometry of a Voronoi cell in three dilnensions. The shaded triangles depict TIN facets, the polygon inside is the constructed Voronoi cell sloped along the steepest direction n. The n-direction is orthogonal to the p-direction. basic ge0I11etry of control volumes defined for mesh nodes and node connectivity. One of the steps in the mesh generation process in the nl0del is to construct a
(Green and Sibson, 1978). The Voronoi diagranl, also referred below as Voronoi Polygon Network (VPN), is a set of convex polygons fonned by connecting the perpendicular bisectors of the triangles of the nlesh (Figure 3-1a). A polygon, built around a mesh node, represents its control vollune and is called the Voronoi region (same as Thiessen polygon). The boundaries between Voronoi polygons, fornled by the bisectors of the mesh edges, define the interfaces between adjoining cells (Figure 3-1a). When a mass flux is conlputed into
a neighboring Voronoi region, the length of a given interface is used as the flux window width. The reference system of a Voronoi cell is defined by the axes p and n, where p fol- lows the direction parallel to the plane of the maximum slope 0:'V
(positive downslope) and n follows the direction normal to that plane (positive downward) (Figure 3-1b ). The nlaxinlum slope direction is chosen anl0ng all edges that connect a Voronoi cell 154
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