Al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s Philosophical


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3  and 24. The usage of  ja¯zima   (“deci-

sive”) is entirely Avicennan. For Ibn Sı¯na¯’s distinction between a decisive volition ( ira¯da 

ja¯zima ) and an inclining volition ( ira¯da mumı¯la ), see Marmura, “The Metaphysics of 

Effi cient Causality,” 183; and idem, “Avicenna on Causal Priority,” 70. 

  28.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:112.5–8 / 2225.2–6. See al-Zabı¯dı¯ , It.ha¯f al-sa¯da ,  9:62.17–21, 

who has  yussira  instead of  tayassara  and  taqu¯dahu  instead of  yaqu¯dahu . Cf. Gramlich, 

 Muh.ammad al-G

.

azza¯lı¯s Lehre ,  195. 

  29.  See also al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  Iqtis.a¯d , 6.10–7.6; on this passage, see van Ess,  Erkennt-



nislehre ,  338. 

  30.  See above p. 133. Cf. Q 80.20 “(. . .) then [God] makes the path easy for him 

(. . .)”; Al-Subkı¯,  T.abaqa¯t , 3:386.5–6, already remarked that al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s theory of human 

action is identical both to that of al-Juwaynı¯ and to that of the Mu ¶tazila. See Gimaret, 

 Théories de l ’ acte humain ,  129. 

  31. Ibn Tu

¯mart,  Sifr f ı¯hi ja¯mi , ta a¯lı¯q al-Ima¯m , 214.1–5. This chain also appears in 

the text “al-Kala¯m  ¶ala¯ l- ¶iba¯da”; ibid., 205–6. 

  32.  See, however, a somewhat similar passage in  Iqtis.a¯d ,  6.10–7.6. 

  33.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:119.14–15 / 2235.9–11. Cf. al-Zabı¯dı¯,  Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da ,  9:72.8–11; 

and Gramlich,  Muh.ammad al-G

.

azza¯lı¯s Lehre ,  207. 

  34.  In the   Ih.ya¯ ,  see most of all the  Baya¯n f ı¯ kayfi yyat al-tafakkur f ı¯ khalq Alla¯h   at 

the end of the thirty-ninth book on meditation ( tafakkur );  al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  ,  4:540–57  / 

2822–44; Ormsby,  Theodicy , 45–51. On al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s  al-Ma a¯rif al- aqliyya,  see Cabanelas, 

“Un opusculo inédito de Algazel: El libro le las intuicones intelectuales.” 

  35.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:318.17–18 / 2513.9–10. Cf. ibid., 4:323.14 / 2520.4; 4:307.17–

22 / 2497.21–2498.3. 

  36.  Ibid.,  1:124. paenult.  / 156.7; 1:148.16 / 189.1; Tibawi, “Al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s Sojourn,” 

85.6, 105. 

  37.  Frank,  Creation , 18. The term appears numerous times in al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s   Ih.ya¯ 7    ;  see, 

e.g., 1:104.20 / 126.6; 4:58.9 / 2151. peanult .; 4:120.21 / 2237.4; 4:136.11 / 2258.11; 4:149.23 / 

2277.16; 4:321.4 / 2516.20; 4:355.11–13 / 2565.6–8. For the synonymous  mudabbir al-asba¯b  

(“the one who orders [or: governs over] the causes”), see ibid., 4:340.22 / 2545.23. See 

also al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s  Taha¯fut , 65.4 / 38.22, 182.9 / 107.19; and  al-Maqs.ad , 116.13. In the  Mun-



qidh , 49.20, al-Ghaza¯lı¯ refers to God as the  muqallib al-qulu¯b , “the one who changes the 

hearts,” meaning the one who determines people’s opinions and moods. 

  38.  For the Avicennan background of  musabbib al-asba¯b,  see Janssens, “Filosofi sche 

Elementen in de mystieke Leer,” 341–42; and Frank,  Creation , 18. The term appears at 

least twice in works of Ibn Sı¯na¯, in  al-H

. ikma al- arshiyya , 9.7, and  al-Shifa¯   7, al-Ila¯hiyya¯t , 

2.16. Based on a close study of the manuscript evidence, Bertolacci,  Reception of Aris-



tote ’ s Metaphysics , 489, rejects the reading of  musabbib al-asba¯b  in Ibn Sı¯na¯’s  al-Shifa¯  7

Ila¯hiyya¯t , 2.16, and corrects it to  sabab al-asba¯b . The Latin translation confi rms this and 

translates  causa causarum   (Ibn  Sı¯na¯,  Avicenna latinus. Liber de philosophia prima ,  1:3.2). 

A similar correction might be necessary for the poorly edited  al-H

. ikma al- arshiyya .  Al-

Juwaynı¯,  al-Irsha¯d , 235.3–4, reports that the philosophers say God is the  sabab al-asba¯b . 

In his  Taha¯fut , 102.4 / 59.10, al-Ghaza¯lı¯ reports roughly the same (cf. also ibid., 97.1 / 

56.2). It is possible that al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s prominent use of  musabbib  had an infl uence on 

 

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3 4 5

the Avicennan manuscript tradition and prompted some copyists to change the original 

Avicennan  sabab  to  musabbib . 

  39.  Al-Makkı¯,  Qu¯t al-qulu¯b , 1:209.8; 2:11.9; German translation in Gramich,  Die 

Nahrung der Herzen , 2: 97, 317; see Frank,  Creation , 18. Al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s strategy of combin-

ing a causalist view of events in this world with a possible occasionalist perspective 

on God’s actions seems to go back to al-Makkı¯; see for example his chapter on  asba¯b  

and  wasa¯  7it.  in  Qu¯t al-qulu¯b , 2:10–15; German translation in Gramlich,  Die Nahrung der 



Herzen ,  2:315–29. 

  40.   musabbibu l-asba¯bi ajra¯ sunnatahu bi-rabt.i l-musabbaba¯ti bi-l-asba¯bi iz.ha¯ran li-l-



h.ikma ;  al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯   7  , 4:355.3 / 2564.16–17. 

  41.  Ibid. 4:307.20 / 2498.2. The usage of the verb  sakhkhara  is Qur’anic; see for 

example Q 13:2, 16:14. 

  42.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:111.11 / 2224.3–4. 

  43.  Ibid. 4:111.12–15 / 2224.5–8. H

. alabı¯’s edition has  mu¯jid  instead of  mu¯jib . 

  44.  Ibn  Sı¯na¯,  al-Isha¯ra¯t wa-l-tanbı¯ha¯t , 188.17–19. Cf. Marmura, “Divine Omnis-

cience,” 91–92. Abrahamov, “Ibn Sı¯na¯’s Infl uence on al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s Non-Philosophical 

Works,” 14–16, deals with Ibn Sı¯na¯’s infl uence on some of al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s views about re-

ward in the hereafter. 

  45.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Maqs.ad al-asna¯ ,  98.4–6. 

  46.   bal [huwa] mumahhidu shart.i l-h.us.u¯l li-ghayrihi.  

  47.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯    7  , 4:111.23–112.3 / 2224.19– ult . Cf. Frank,  Creation ,  26. 

  48.  On  al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s understanding of  jawhar —which does not concur with the 

earlier Ash   ¶arites’ understanding of  jawhar  as an atom—see Frank,  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯ and the 

Ash arite School ,  48–67. 

  49.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯  7  , 4:112.11–12 / 2225.9–10. On the  h.adı¯th,   see  al-Bukha¯rı¯,  al-



S.ahı¯h ,   jiha¯d,  144; and Wensinck,  Concordance ,  2:501a. 

  50.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯    7  ,  4:317.17–20  /  2511. paenult –2512.1;   al-ra¯sikhu¯na f ı¯-l-  ilm  is taken 

from Q 3:7 in which—according to al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s interpretation of this verse—those 

“deeply rooted in knowledge” are identifi ed as the scholars who know the meaning of 

diffi cult passages from revelation. On al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s understanding of Q 3:7, see Griffel, 

 Apostasie und Toleranz ,  448. 

  51. Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:317.20–25 / 2512.3–6. See al-Zabı¯dı¯,  Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da ,  9:423.20–

26, who lacks the word  azaliyya  in the third sentence. 

  52.  Gramlich,  Muh.ammad al-G

.

azza¯lı¯s Lehre ,  542–43. 

  53.  Al-Isfara¯  



  7ı¯nı¯, “al- ¶Aqı¯da,” 168, fragm. 94. Cf. al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Maqs.ad , 105.17: “God 

arranges them ( scil.  all things) in their appropriate places and thereby He is just (  ¶adl ).” 

See Frank,  Creation , 64–65, and particularly 56–57, where he discusses the meaning 

of  h.aqq  in a very similar passage to the one we are looking at. On  h.aqq,  cf. a passage in 

al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Iqtis.a¯d , 102.2–3, on the relationship between God’s will and his foreknowl-

edge: “The divine foreknowledge is true to ( h.aqqa al- ilm ) [the decision of the divine will] 

and contains them as they are.” 

  54.  See above pp.  141–43 . 

  55.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  Maqa¯s.id al-fala¯sifa ,  2:82. paenult. –85.2 / 236.24–239.3; MS Lon-

don, Or. 3126, foll. 237b–240a. The text in  Maqa¯s.id  is a free adaptation of Ibn Sı¯na¯, 

 Da¯nishna¯mah-yi  Ala¯  7-i ,   Ila¯

hiyya¯t , 95–97, that illustrates Ibn Sı¯na¯’s teachings with origi-

nal examples. For the Avicennan texts used in the passage of the London MS, see Griffel, 

“MS London, British Library, Or. 3126: An Unknown Work,” 15. 

  56.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯, MS London, Or. 3126, foll. 238a.8–238b.9. 

  57.  Ibn Sı¯na¯,  al-Shifa¯    7 ,   al-Ila¯hiyya¯t , 339.4–8;  al-Naja¯t , 284.12–13 / 668.14–16, quoted 

in al-Ghaza¯lı¯, MS London Or. 3126, fol. 238a.5–8. 

3 4 6  

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  58.  Al-Juwaynı¯,  al-Sha¯mil  (ed. Alexandria), 621.21–22 and 622.3–8 (with the 

example—also used by al-Ghaza¯lı¯—that a well-written manuscript gives necessary 

evidence to the skills of the scribe); al-Makkı¯,  Qu¯t al-qulu¯b , 2:35–36. The motif that 

God’s creation is skillfully arranged goes back to the Qur’an, in which in various con-

texts it says that God’s creation contains “signs ( a¯ya¯t ) for those who can understand.” 

The idea that certain divine attributes show in His creation is also Qur’anic. The 

usual proof for God’s oneness and unity in  kala¯m  literature is by mutual hindrance 

tama¯nu  ¶). It appears already in Q 23:91, 17:42–3: Because this creation shows no signs 

of the activity of more than one divine creative force, which would necessarily com-

pete with and hinder one another, there is only one God. See also the story of Abra-

ham’s conversion to monotheism in Q 6:75–79, discussed below. 

  59.  Kukkonen, “Plentitude, Possibility, and the Limits of Reason,” 545–46; David-

son,  Proofs , 226–27, 234; Goodman, “Ghazâlî’s Argument from Creation,” 69. On argu-

ments from design in the thirty-second book of the   Ih.ya¯ 7  , see van den Bergh, “Ghazali 

on ‘Gratitude Towards God,’ ” 86–88, 97–98. 

  60.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Iqtis.a¯d ,  99–100. 

  61.  Ormsby,  Theodicy in Islamic Thought , 37, 75. For a discussion of al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s po-

sition, see ibid., 39–74; Frank,  Creation , 60–66; and idem,  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯ and the Ash arite 



School ,  20–21. 

  

62. The debate is documented and analyzed in Ormsby,  



Theodicy in Islamic 

Thought , 92–265, and al-Zabı¯dı¯,  Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da ,  9:434–60. 

  63.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯   7  , 4:322.1–3 / 2518.5–8; English translation in Ormsby,  Theod-



icy in Islamic Thought , 40–41. Cf. al-Zabı¯dı¯,  Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da , 9:433. These words seem to be 

inspired by the beginning paragraph of Ibn Sı¯na¯’s  Risa¯la Fı¯ sirr al-qadar,  in which all ele-

ments in al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s passage (the obscurity of the matter, the deep sea, the prohibition 

to teach it to the   ¶a¯mma ) also appear. See the text of the  Risa¯la Fı¯ sirr al-qadar  in Hourani, 

“Ibn Sı¯na¯’s ‘Essay on the Secret of Destiny,’ ” 27–31; and in  ¶A

¯ s.i,  al-Tafsı¯r al-Qur  7a¯nı¯ , 

302–5. 

  64.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Imla¯   7 f ı¯ ishka¯la¯t al- Ih.ya¯  7  , 50–51 / 3083–85; MS Yale, Landberg 



428, pp. 55–56. For an English synopsis of this passage, see Ormsby,  Theodicy in Islamic 

Thought , 75–81. The available editions of  al-Imla¯  7 f ı¯ ishka¯la¯t al- Ih.ya¯ 7  , printed at the end 

or on the margins of many editions of the   Ih.ya¯   ulu¯m al-dı¯n  and on the margins of 

al-Zabı¯dı¯,  Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da , 1:192–204, are of very poor quality, with some textual passages 

(likely some lines in the underlying manuscript) missing. They also represent a recen-

sion of the text that is not original. In this recension, the order of the  fus.u¯l  does not 

match the description of the contents given by al-Ghaza¯lı¯ at the beginning of the work 

on pp. 19–20 / 3038–39. A more original recension and a much better text is available in 

manuscripts such as MS Yale, Landberg 428 (once owned by al-Murt.ada¯ al-Zabı¯dı¯), and, 

with slight variations in the order of the text, MS Berlin, Petermann II 545 (Ahlwardt 

1714). 


  65.  On al-Makkı¯’s  Qu¯t al-qulu¯b,  see the very helpful German translation by Rich-

ard Gramlich,  Die Nahrung der Herzen , which includes notes and an analytical index. 

  66.  See above p. 222. 

  67.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:321.1–16 / 2516.17–2517.13. English translation in Ormsby, 

 Theodicy in Islamic Thought ,  38–39. 

  68.  Al-Makkı¯,  Qu¯t al-qulu¯b,  2:35–36. Cf. Ormsby,  Theodicy in Islamic Thought ,  41, 

45, 81. 

  69.  Al-Makkı¯,  Qu¯t al-qulu¯



b ,  2:35. paenult. – ult . English translation in Ormsby,  The-

odicy , 58; German translation in Gramlich,  Die Nahrung der Herzen , 2:396; and idem, 

 Muh.ammad al-G



.

azza¯lı¯ ’ s Lehre ,  549. 

 

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3 4 7

  70.   wa-laysa f ı¯-l-imka¯ni as.lan ah.sanu minhu wa-la¯ atamma wa-la¯ akmala ;  al-Ghaza¯lı¯, 

  Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:321.16–18 / 2517.13–16. Cf. al-Zabı¯dı¯,  Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da , 9:430.18–26. See the English 

translation in Ormsby,  Theodicy in Islamic Thought ,  39. 

  71.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 3:73.10–13 / 1446–47. 

  72.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:321.20–26 / 2517.18–2518.2. See the English translation in 

Ormsby,  Theodicy in Islamic Thought , 40, and his commentary on pp. 64–69. 

  73.  Ormsby,  Theodicy in Islamic Thought ,  257. 

  74.  Ibn Sı¯na¯,  al-Isha¯ra¯t wa-l-tanbı¯ha¯t , 186.5–6. Ormsby,  Theodicy in Islamic Thought , 

257, says that according to Ibn Sı¯na¯, harm appears  accidental  when good is created. This 

is, however, a misunderstanding that seems to be based on Ibn Sı¯na¯’s wording in  al-



Isha¯ra¯t , 186.1 and 187.1–3. Frank,  Creation , 61, shares this misunderstanding. Creating 

good, however,  necessarily  requires the creation of harm. 

  75.  Ibn Sı¯na¯,  al-Isha¯ra¯t wa-l-tanbı¯ha¯t , 185–87. On Ibn Sı¯na¯’s teachings on harm or 

evil ( sharr ), see Steel, “Avicenna and Thomas Aquinas on Evil,” 173–86. 

  76.  Ibn  Sı¯na¯,  al-Shifa¯  7 , al-Ila¯hiyya¯t,  342.4–5. Steel, “Avicenna and Thomas Aquinas 

on Evil,” 179–81. 

  77.  Ibn Sı¯na¯,  al-Shifa¯  7

, al-Ila¯hiyya¯t,  340.11; idem,  al-Naja¯t , 285.11 / 670.17. Steel, 

“Avicenna and Thomas Aquinas on Evil,” 174–77. This seems to be a premise not shared 

by al-Ghaza¯lı¯. In his  Imla¯  7 , 50.10–11 / 3083.20–21; MS Landberg 428, p. 55.20, al-Ghaza¯lı¯ 

counters the objection that the idea of the best of all possible worlds is incompatible 

with the position of the world’s creation in time. His brief response makes sense only if 

existence is not regarded as better than nonexistence. On the apparent incompatibility 

of the best of all possible worlds and creation in time, see Ormsby,  Theodicy , 76–77; and 

Frank,  Creation ,  66. 

  78.  Ibn  Sı¯na¯,  al-Shifa¯   7, al-Ila¯hiyya¯t , 339.13–15;  al-Naja¯t , 284.18–19 / 669.9–10. 

  79.  Ibn  Sı¯na¯,  al-Shifa¯   7, al-Ila¯hiyya¯t ,  341.8–10;   al-Naja¯t , 286.4–7 / 672.9–13. The posi-

tion that species are unaffected by harm does not seem to have been shared by al-Ghaza¯lı¯, 

who considers the species of beasts ( baha¯   7im ) harmful (  Ih.ya¯ 7  , 4:321.24–25 / 2518.1). 

  80.  Ibn  Sı¯na¯,  al-Shifa¯ 7, al-Ila¯hiyya¯t , 341.8–9;  al-Naja¯t , 286.5 / 667.9–10. Cf. Aristo-

tle,  Metaphysics ,  1010a.25–30. 

  81.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯  7  , 4:124.21–125.2 / 2242.17–2243.2. It is here that al-Ghaza¯lı¯ 

says: “An ignorant friend is worse than an insightful foe.” Van den Bergh, “Ghazali on 

‘Gratitude Towards God,’ ” 92, remarks that al-Ghaza¯lı¯ “may have read it” in  Kalı¯la wa-

Dimna . Van den Bergh’s article has no references, and as far as I am aware, there is no 

such sentence in that work. 

  82.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Maqs.ad al-asna¯ ,  68.1–5. 

  83.  Ibid. 68.6–8. 

  84. Ibid. 68.15–16; 69.15–16. For the  h.adı¯th,   see  al-Bukha¯rı¯,  al-S.ah.ih. ,   tawh.ı¯d   15, 

22, 28, 55; or Muslim ibn al-H

. ajja¯j,  al-S.ah.ı¯h. ,   tawba  14–16. Cf. Wensinck,  Concordance , 

4:526a. 


  85.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯, MS Yale, Landberg 428, p. 56.4–7. In the printed text in  al-Imla¯  7 , 

50.16–18 / 3084.6–8, and in the margins of al-Zabı¯dı¯ , Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da , 1:201, this sentence 

is corrupted. See also the translation in Ormsby,  Theodicy , 78, based on MS Berlin, Pe-

termann II 545, fol. 16b. 

  86.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Imla¯   7

 , 50.20–21 / 3083.10–11; idem, MS Yale, Landberg 428, 

p. 56.9–10. Cf. the text in the margins of al-Zabı¯dı¯ , Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da ,  1:201. 

  87.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Imla¯   7 , 50.23–51.7 / 3084.14–3085.5. This passage is not in MS 

Yale, Landberg 428. It is this reasoning that likely lies behind al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s decision only 

to write about the world’s perfection in two comparatively brief passages in his   Ih.ya¯  



 ulu¯m al-dı¯n  and in his  al-Imla¯  7 f ı¯ ishka¯la¯t al- Ih.ya¯  7  . The subject is not explicitly discussed 

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not e s   to   page s   2 2 8 – 2 3 1

in other books of the   Ih.ya¯ 7   circle, such as  al-Arba ı¯n  or  Kı¯miya¯  7-yi sa a¯dat .  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯, 

however, alludes to it in  Taha¯fut al-fala¯sifa , 289.4–6 / 172.17; al -Iqtis.a¯d , 165–66;  al-Maqs.ad 



al-asna¯  7 , 47.12–13, 68.6–8, 105–6, 81.12–13, 109.8–15, 152.11–13; and probably many other 

passages of his works. 

  88.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Imla¯   7 , 50.13–16 / 3084.2–6. Corrected according to MS Yale, 

Landberg 428, pp. 55. ult. –56.4, which varies in the following readings:  wa-l-yatah.aqqiqa ; 

 wa-anna dha¯lika  ala¯ gha¯yati l-h.ikma ; and  burha¯n 

an

   wa¯d.ih. 

an

 .  

  89.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  

 

Ih.ya¯  7  ,  4:317. ult .–318.4 / 2512.12–16. Cf. al-Zabı¯dı¯,  Ith.a¯f al-sa¯da , 

9:423–24. This passage is translated and its language discussed in Frank,  Creation ,  56–

61. See also Gramlich’s German translation in  Muh.ammad al-G

.

azza¯lı¯s Lehre .  543. 

  90.  See  p.   225 . 

   91.  See  p.   228 .   

  92.  Frank,   Creation ,  55–63. 

  93.  Ibid., 69. 

  94.  This is most forcefully expressed in al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  Taha¯fut , 96–103 / 56–60; 155–

60 / 91–94. See also above, pp.  184–85 . 

  95.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  



Taha¯fut 

, 64.5–66.6 / 38.12–39.13. Logically impossible means 

“conjoining negation and affi rmation” ( al-jam ¶ bayna l-naf ı¯ wa-l-ithba¯t ). 

  96.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,   Ih.ya¯ 7  , 1:148.16–18 / 189.1–3; Tibawi, “Al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s Sojoun,” 85.6–7, 

105. Kukkonen, “Possible Worlds,” 480, concludes that al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s innovations to the 

philosophy of Ibn Sı¯na¯ “have their root in the idea of God freely choosing (arbitrating) 

between alternatives equal to him.” 

  97.  Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Iqtis.a¯d , 129–39. This category came to be used by the Nishapu-

rian Ash ¶arites, most probably in conscious response to the  fala¯sifa ’s  teachings.  ¶Abd 

al-Qa¯hir al-Baghda¯dı¯’s  Us.u¯l al-dı¯n,  117–18, 121–22, refers to a group of divine names that 

are derived from God’s essence and to a second group that “are derived from an attribute 

that He has residing within Him” ( mushtaqq min s.ifa lahu qa¯ 7imat 



an

   bihi ). A third group 

is derived from God’s actions. On al-Baghda¯dı¯’s division, see Gimaret,  Les noms divins 



en Islam , 107–8. Ibn Sı¯na¯ already refers to this concept and says in  al-H

. ikma al- arshiyya , 

9.9, that God’s knowledge is not  za  7id  ala¯ l-dha¯t.  On al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s conception of the di-

vine attributes, see Frank,  Creation ,  47–52. 

  98.   ghayru maqdu¯rin  ala¯ ma na¯ anna wuju¯dahu yu  7addı¯ ila¯ stih.a¯la ;  al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-



Iqtis.a¯d , 85.8–86.4. Marmura, “Ghazali’s Chapter on Divine Power,” 301–2. On this sense 

of necessity in al-Ghaza¯lı¯, see Kukkonen, “Causality and Cosmology,” 41–42. 

 chapter  9 

  

1. Al-Ghaza¯lı¯,  al-Maqs.ad , 98.6–102.14; idem, al -Arba ı¯n ,  13.6–18. ult.   /  12.5–14. ult.  



The passage in  al-Arba ı¯n  is often left out from manuscripts of the book. In fact, among 

the fi ve manuscripts I looked at—two in Berlin (Sprenger 763 and 941; see Ahlwardt, 

 Handschriften-Verzeichnisse , nos. 1715–716), two in Princeton (Yahuda Collection, nos. 

3893 and 4374; see Mach,  Catalogue , no. 2161), and one at Yale’s Beinecke Library (Ara-

bic MSS suppl. 425)—none contained this passage, and two of them (Sprenger 763 and 

Yahuda 3893) have heavily abbreviated sections on God’s will ( ira¯da ), opening the pos-

sibility that al-Ghaza¯lı¯ published more than one version of  al-Arba ı¯n . Cf. the English 

translation of the passage in  al-Maqs.ad  in Burrell and Daher,  The Ninety-Nine Beauti-



ful Names of God , 86–88. On this passage, see Frank,  Creation and the Cosmic System , 

42–44; and Abrahamov, “Al-Ghaza¯lı¯’s Theory of Causality.” 


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