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56. The correct answer is (E). In the nineteenth century, there existed two traditions of labor organiza-
tion in the United States. One tradition concerned itself with wages and working conditions. It sought
benefits such as higher wages and shorter hours. This tradition is sometimes referred to as “bread and
butter” unionism. The other tradition cast its nets more widely and sought political and social reform
as well. Samuel Gompers directed the American Federation of Labor (1886–1894; 1896–1924) in the
first tradition. Essentially a conservative, Gompers was not interested in restructuring the economic
pie, he just wanted to make sure that labor got a bigger share. Since then, American unions have been
primarily concerned with the bread and butter issues of wages and working conditions.
57. The correct answer is (B). In 1893, the historian Frederick Jackson Turner published a paper entitled
“The Frontier in American History.” The title tells you what Turner thought to be the most important
factor in the development of a unique American character.
58. The correct answer is (D). Under the electoral college system established by the United States Consti-
tution, the system under which we still operate, the president and vice president are not chosen by popular
vote. Instead, the popular vote is used to choose electors. These electors in turn cast their votes to elect
directly the president and vice president. This peculiar system was designed to ensure that an unqualified
candidate, though favored by a majority of the people, would never reach office. It was contemplated that
the electors, who would presumably be better educated than the average voter, would ignore the popular
vote and choose a better candidate. When a voter casts a ballot in a presidential election, she or he is not
actually voting for a candidate. Instead, the vote is cast for a slate of electors who have pledged themselves
to cast their electoral votes for a certain candidate. The slate that gets the most votes gets to cast that state’s
electoral votes. This “winner take all” system can produce some interesting results:

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Lesson 6
148
w w w . p e t e r s o n s . c o m / a r c o
ARCO
■ SAT II Subject Tests
Year
Candidate
Popular Vote
Electoral Vote
1888
Benjamin Harrison
5,444,337
233
Grover Cleveland
5,540,050
168
1980
Ronald Reagan
43,899,248
489
Jimmy Carter
35,481,435
49
John Anderson
5,719,437
0
In 1888, Cleveland received nearly 100,000 more votes than Harrison, but the electoral college made
Harrison president by a vote of 233 to 168. In 1980, John Anderson received nearly six million votes,
but that fact was not reflected in the electoral college vote.
Critics of the system also point out that electors, while “pledged” to particular candidates, are not
legally bound to vote for those candidates. Occasionally, electors ignore their pledges, but this has not
occurred very often. Also, say critics, the system discourages the growth of new parties because it is
necessary to poll a large number of votes to get any electoral votes.
Finally, analysts say that the system encourages candidates to concentrate on more populous
states with their greater electoral votes and to ignore smaller and less populous states. Thus, (D) is the
exception and the correct choice.