An Introduction to Applied Linguistics

part of teachers, alternative assessment is more time-consuming and expensive to 
conduct than traditional testing (Hardy, 1995; Breen, Barrett-Pugh, Derewianka, 
House, Hudson, Lumley and Rohl, 1997; Hardy 1995). Decision-makers are, not 
surprisingly, often reluctant to commit extra funding to complex teacher-led 
assessment systems that require high levels of infrastructural support, particularly 

---

264 An Introduction to Applied Linguistics
when resources are scarce. However, as assessment researchers involved in 
assessment reform have argued, without such a commitment the possibilities of 
implementing such systems are seriously compromised (Eckes et al., 2005).
Outcomes-based Assessment
In recent years, the shift towards alternative assessment has been paralleled by a 
move towards greater accountability. Under increasing pressure to demonstrate 
‘value for money’ to taxpayers, and/or to standardize curricula and outcomes 
within and across national boundaries, governments worldwide have identified 
a need for system-wide indicators for monitoring the outcomes of educational 
programmes. This has led to the widespread introduction of ‘outcomes-based’ 
approaches to assessment and reporting, whereby the results of teacher-
developed performance assessments are used as the basis for reporting student 
learning outcomes against pre-specified attainment standards, known, inter alia, 
as ’frameworks’ ‘benchmarks’, ‘bandscales’ or ‘competencies’ (Norton Peirce and 
Stewart, 1997; Brindley, 1998; McKay 2000; Hudson, 2005). Examples of this 
type of approach are the Common European Framework of Reference in Europe 
(Council of Europe, 2001), the Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment in 
Canada (Pawlikowska-Smith, 2000) and the Certificates in Spoken and Written 
English in Australia (Burrows, 2004).
Over the last decade or so, the implementation of outcomes-based approaches 
has raised many of the issues and problems associated with the use of alternative 
assessment that are mentioned above (Brindley, 1998). In addition, the history 
of their adoption shows that in many cases the development of such assessment 
systems is driven more by government policy and ideology than by educational 
considerations (Shohamy, 2006; McNamara and Roever, 2006; Mencken, 2008). 
This policiticization of language testing has prompted the emergence of ‘critical 
language testing’, an approach which questions the ideologies and assumptions 
that underlie language assessment and calls for a radical re-examination of the 
power structures while advocating greater attention to issues of fairness and 
equity for test-takers (Shohamy, 2001, 2006).
Conclusion
The fundamental concepts, beliefs and practices in language assessment have 
changed in recent years, in part because of the shifting relationship between 
assessment and teaching. Previously, assessment tended to take the form of 
proficiency testing, based on general ability constructs, which was largely 
unconnected to the curriculum. Now there is a widespread recognition of the need 
for close links between the desired outcomes of instruction, curriculum content 
and assessment, and this new emphasis is increasingly reflected in assessment 
policies, materials and methods. However, although the integration of assessment 
and learning is supported by strong educational arguments (Black and William, 
1998), as yet relatively little research has been conducted in language learning 
contexts to determine whether or not ‘embedded’ assessment results in improved 
learning. This important question will need to be investigated through washback 
studies that not only investigate the impact of tests on society at large but also 
explore ways in which classroom assessment occurs as socially situated practice 
(see, for example, Rea-Dickins, 2006; Davison, 2007). At the same time, in order 

---

265
Assessment
to ensure that the tests and assessments that are used in language programmes are 
optimally fair and valid, a continuing research effort will be required to clarify the 
nature of the constructs that underlie them.
Further Reading
Bachman, L.F. (1990) Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: 
Oxford University Press. This classic work on language assessment develops issues 
of construct definition, test method, and validation in depth. It connects work in applied 
linguistics (for example, communicative competence theory) with the fundamentals of 
educational measurement.
Bachman, L.F., Palmer, A.S. (1996) Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford 
University Press. This book takes readers through test development and formative 
evaluation – detailing each step of the way in view of the theoretical and practical concerns 
that should inform decisions. The book contributes substantively to current discussion of 
validity by proposing a means for evaluating language tests which incorporates current 
validation theory but which is framed in a manner which is sufficiently comprehensible, 
and appropriately slanted toward language testing.
Bachman, L.F., Alderson, J.C. (eds), Cambridge Language Assessment Series. This 
series offers authoritative treatments of practical issues in areas of language assessment, 
such as reading (Alderson, 2000), vocabulary (Read, 2000), language for specific 
purposes (Douglas, 2000), listening (Buck, 2001), writing (Weigle, 2002), speaking, 
(Luoma, 2004), grammar (Purpura, 2004) and assessing young language learners 
(McKay, 2006). Each volume contains an up-to-date overview of theory and research, 
accompanied by useful discussion and examples of testing principles and techniques.
Fulcher, G., Davidson, F. (2007) Language Testing and Assessment: An Advanced