Based pronunciation standards of English

7)Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants in the works of Soviet, British and American phoneticians.
A consonant is sound produced with the obstruction to the airstream. The organs of sp are tense at the place of obstruction. The particular quality of consonant depends on the work of the vocal cords, the position of soft palate, mouth/ nasal cavity.
English consonants can be classified acc to the following principals:
Soviet phoneticians suggest the classification from the viewpoint of closure. It may be: 1) complete closure- is formed when the organs of sp come in contact with each other- the occlusive (stop or closive) and nasal consonants are produced [p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ng] and R.S. [п, б, к, г, п’, б’, т’, д’, к’, г’, м’, н’, м, н]. 2) incomplete closure- is formed when the articulator is held close to the articulation as to constrict the air passage without locking it - than constrictive are produced: E.S. [f,v,th, th,h,s,z,sh,3,w,j,r] and R.S. [ф,в,с,з,х,ф’,в’,с’,з’,ж,ш,ж’,ш’,й,л,л’]. 3) intermittent closure- is formed when a series of rapid intermittent taps is made by a flexible organ on a fixed surface – affricates (ch, d3)
According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of escalation consonants are subdivided into voiced “lenis”- the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension are weaker (b,d,g,v,z, 3) and voiceless “fortis”- the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension are greater [p, t , k ,s ,f, th, h ,sh].
According to the sp organs involved and the place of obstruction. 1)Labial: bilabial – produced with both lips [p, b, m, n]; labiodentals – articulated with te lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth [f, v]. 2)Lingual: forelingual- articulated with the tip of the blade of the tongue
According to the apposition of the tip of the tongue they may be: dorsal – articulated by the blade of the tongue[t], apical- against alv ridge/ upper teeth [t, d, s, z, th], cacuminal- tip raised against the back part of the alv ridge, the front is lowered forming a spoon [r]. Mediolingual – with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate [j]. Backlingual- produced with the back part of the t raised towards soft palate [k, g, ng]. Acc to the place of obstructon: interdental –the tip of the t is between the teeth [th], dental, alveolar- the tip of the t against the upper teeth ridge [t, d, s, z, n, l], post-alveolar- the tip/blade against the back part of the teeth ridge [r], palato-alveolar – the tip of the blade of the t against teeth ridge.
Acc to the position of the soft palate: oral- when the soft palate is raised and the air from the lungs gets into the pharynx and then into the mouth cavity [p, t, k, f, v]; nasal- when the soft palate is lowered and th air on its way out passes through the nasal cavity [n, ng, m].
Acc to the shape of narrowing constrictive cons and affricates are subdivided into sounds with flat narrowing [f, v, th, sh, d3], round narr [s, z, w].
Acc to the principle of noise prevalence. Soviet phon: occlusive –noise/nasals and sonorants; constrictives –noise/affricatives and sonorants.
Acc to manner of noise production. Occlusive noise cons are subdivided into plosive –sp organs forn a complete obstruction which is then quickly released with explosion [d], affricates- sp organs forma a complete obstruction, it is released, but slowly [ch, d3].