Biographical encyclopedia
[114] GUTENBERG NICHOLAS OF CUSA [115]
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[114] GUTENBERG NICHOLAS OF CUSA
could then be used to print an unlimited number of different books, and, what is more, an unlimited number of identical copies of a particular book could be printed in very little time. By 1450 Gutenberg was back in Mainz and definitely engaged in working on his invention. Like most crucial in ventions, the practical development de pended on the concurrent success of other developments. The production of many books required the existence of a cheap and plentiful supply of something on which the printing could be impressed. Fortunately paper, which had been invented by Tsai Lun [63] fourteen centuries earlier, had reached Europe. Proper inks had to be developed and also proper techniques for forming tiny metal letters all of the same measure ments so that they could be interchanged without trouble and so that all would impress themselves on the paper equally. Gutenberg also designed a printing press to make the impression more firmly than could be managed by the unaided biceps. It was not easy; although the concept of printing probably took no more than an instant of time to enter Gutenberg’s head, the practical development took at least twenty years. By 1454 Gutenberg was ready for the big task. He began to put out a Bible, in double columns, with forty-two lines in Latin to the page. He produced three hundred copies of each of 1282 pages and thus produced the three hundred Gutenberg Bibles. It was the first printed book, and many people consider it the most beautiful ever produced—so that the art was born at its height. The Gu tenberg Bibles that remain are the most valued books in the world. Unfortunately, Gutenberg had gone into debt to produce the Bible and was sued for the money. He lost (he was a chronic loser) and was forced to hand over his tools and presses. He did not even get a chance actually to publish his Bible. The winners of the suit, including his ex-partner, did so. Gutenberg, who never married, died in debt and, apparently, a failure, but print ing proved a phenomenal success. It swept Europe and introduced a new method by which propagandists could spread their views. It is probable that Luther’s rebellion against the church suc ceeded where previous rebellions had failed because Luther harnessed the printing press and fought his battle with broadsides of intensely styled pamphlets. Printing meant cheap books, and cheap books made literacy worthwhile. By 1500 up to nine million printed cop ies of thirty thousand different works were in circulation. The base of scholar ship broadened and the educated com munity grew in numbers. Furthermore, the views and discoveries of scholars could be made known quickly to other scholars. Scholars began to act as a team, instead of as isolated individuals. The realm of the unknown could more and more be assaulted by concerted blows. Scientists were no longer fists, but arms moving a battering ram. Printing did not immediately bring on the Scientific Revolution. A century was yet to pass. However, it made the revolu tion inevitable. And, taken in reverse, the revolution would probably have been impossible without printing. [115] NICHOLAS OF CUSA German scholar Bom: Kues, near Treves, Rhine land, 1401 Died: Lodi, Italy, August 11, 1464 Nicholas Krebs, usually known as Nicholas of Cusa from his birthplace, was the son of a fisherman. He studied law at Heidelberg, then at the University of Padua, where he met Toscanelli [113] and where he received his degree in 1423. He abandoned law, however, to enter the church in 1430. He was pri marily a philosopher and had the un canny knack of coming upon notions that are close to those now held. In opposition to the practical Regio montanus [119], Nicholas, in a book published in 1440, held that the earth turned on its axis and moved about the sun, that there was neither “up” nor “down” in space, that space was infinite, that the stars were other suns and bore
[116] BESSARION ALBERTI
in their grasp other inhabited worlds. These beliefs, however, were not backed by detailed observation, calculation, or theory. They did not affect the course of science, and it is doubtful that Coper nicus [121] even heard of them. In other fields, Nicholas was equally intuitive. He constructed spectacles with concave lenses for the nearsighted, where earlier spectacles had made use only of the more easily ground convex lenses and served only the farsighted. He con sidered that plants drew their sustenance in part from the air, and he advocated counting the pulse as a diagnostic aid in medicine. In general, he was anxious to measure physical phenomena, a point of view Galileo [166] was to make popular a century and a half later. Far from get ting into trouble for his radical views, Nicholas was appointed a cardinal in 1448. Bruno [157], who shared many of his views in a later and more troubled time, was not to be so fortunate. [116] BESSARION, John (beh-saCee-on) Greek scholar Born: Trebizond (now Trabzon, Turkey), January 2, 1403 Died: Ravenna, Italy, November 18, 1472 Constantinople, after having been the great Roman capital of the East, had grown weaker and weaker and was in imminent danger of falling to the waxing power of the Ottoman Turks. Repeat edly, the Byzantine Emperors appealed for help to the West. The West wasn’t strong enough to help and, in any case, wanted the Eastern Christians to ac knowledge the primacy of the pope, which the Eastern Christians would not do even if it meant subjection to the Turks. In 1437, Emperor John VIII came to Italy, pleading for help. With him was Basil Bessarion, archbishop of Nicaea. Bessarion, at least, favored accepting the pope’s terms and when the emperor re turned with nothing accomplished, Bes sarion stayed on in Italy, took the name John, and was made a cardinal in 1439 by Pope Eugene IV. Bessarion was a great scholar who had accumulated many manuscripts of the great Greek books. He spread the knowl edge of Greek to western scholars; trans lated the works of Aristotle [29], which thus reached the West for the first time without having been filtered through the Arabic first. On his death, he left his library to the Senate of Venice. By that time, Constan tinople had fallen to the Turks (in 1453) but, thanks to Bessarion, Greek knowledge was not utterly lost to the West.
[117] ALBERTI, Leone Battista (al-ber'- tee)
Italian artist Born: Genoa, February 18, 1404 Died: Rome, April 25, 1472 In their almost uncritical appreciation of the achievements of the ancients the humanists of the Renaissance failed to see that after those ancients a number of advances had been made in technology, and those later centuries were not simply to be dismissed as “dark.” The Dark Ages (a term invented in the Renais sance as a derogatory reference) saw the introduction of the compass, of gunpow der, of windmills, of horseshoes, and horse collars. Nor was the literature, ar chitecture, art, and philosophy of the Dark or Middle Ages to be too easily dismissed. In comparison the men of the Renaissance, who exalted art and litera ture (the “humanities”), tended to ne glect science. The neglect was not, of course, com plete. Even the finest of the fine arts will, in some measure, lead thought in the di rection of science, because, in the final analysis, all knowledge is one. Alberti, the illegitimate son of a wealthy Florentine exile, is an example. He was educated in law at the University of Bologna, receiving his doctorate in 1428, but law did not hold him and could not. He was a “Renaissance man” in the sense of having a broad range of
[118] PEURBACH
REGIOMONTANUS [ 1 1 9 ] interests, of excelling in many fields and scorning narrow specialization. Arriving in Rome in 1432, where his talents had full scope, he was prominent in nearly all the arts, in painting and in sculpture. He was an excellent architect (the best since Vitruvius [55]) and de signed some notable churches in Mantua and Rimini. He wrote a treatise on ar chitecture that remained authoritative for centuries. He was a musician and or ganist as well, a writer of tragedies in Latin, and also a mathematician. Alberti was a developer of the laws of perspective in a book published in 1434 and thus the forerunner of what is today called “projective geometry,” a science properly developed by Poncelet [456] four centuries later. He used mechanical aids, such as pinhole cameras, to guide him. The laws of perspective gave Re naissance art its naturalism and distin guished it from the solemn two-dimen sionality of medieval art. In the hands of later Renaissance masters, such as Leo nardo da Vinci [122], considerations of perspective grew so detailed that art be came almost a branch of geometry. The vogue for such “real looking” art has long passed among most artists, but it is still the kind of art most easily appreci ated by the untrained eye. [118] PEURBACH, Georg von (poir'- bahkh)
Austrian mathematician and as tronomer
Born: Peurbach (near Vienna), May 30, 1423 Died: April 8, 1461 Peurbach studied at the University of Vienna, then traveled to Italy, the intel lectual center of Europe at the time. There he met Nicholas of Cusa [115]. He returned to Vienna in 1453 and lec tured there on astronomy and mathe matics, and was appointed astrologer to King Ladislas V of Hungary and later to the Emperor Frederick III. Peurbach was an ardent advocate of the use of Arabic numerals, an innova tion that was already two hundred and fifty years old, having been introduced that long ago by Fibonacci [95], Even so, the infinitely inferior Roman nu merals were still doggedly retained by many, a remarkable example of self damaging conservatism. Peurbach’s use of Arabic numerals to prepare a table of sines of unprecedented accuracy, ad vancing the mechanics of trigonometry past the Greek and Arabic mark, made it very difficult for the reactionaries. He died, however, before he could finish. His pupil Regiomontanus [119] labored at the table too, and also died before he could finish. Peurbach attempted to polish the Ptole maic system, but he did not dare change it in essentials. He took a backward step in fact by insisting on the solid reality of the crystalline spheres of the planets, something which Ptolemy [64] had not quite insisted upon in the Almagest. These solid spheres only lasted a cen tury, however, and then Tycho Brahe [156] destroyed them once and for all. [119] REGIOMONTANUS (ree-jee-oh- mon-tayffius) German astronomer
June 6, 1436 Died: Rome, Italy, July 8, 1476 Regiomontanus was the son of a miller and his real name was, appropriately enough, Johann Müller. His high-sound ing pseudonym (“king’s mountain” in English) is the Latin name of his birth place, which is not, by the way, the more famous Königsberg (now Kaliningrad), East Prussia. Regiomontanus was admitted to the University of Leipzig at the age of eleven. In 1450, he was at the Univer sity of Vienna, where he gained his bachelor’s degree in 1452 and was on the faculty in 1457. He was a thoroughgoing follower of Ptolemy’s [64] astronomy, and learned Greek in order to probe back beyond the Arabs. He studied with Peurbach [118] and labored with him in joint endeavors. Regiomontanus published a revised
[119] REGIOMONTANUS COLUMBUS
and corrected version of Almagest, mak ing use of the Greek copies Bessarion [116] had brought from Constantinople. However, it was not as good a version as, unknown to him or anyone in Europe, Ulugh Beg [112] was preparing a continent away. Regiomontanus also discovered an uncopied manuscript of Diophantus [66], the only portion of his work ever recovered. Regiomontanus was conservative in his outlook. He went out of his way to deride the possibility that the earth moved. He insisted that rotation on its axis was a foolish concept and pointed out that the earth’s rotation would mean that birds would be blown away, clouds would be left behind, buildings would tumble. This argument had been used before and would continue to be used with powerful effect until the time of Galileo [166], Regiomontanus made important obser vations of the heavens and prepared new tables of planetary motions that brought those prepared under Alfonso X [100] up to date. The new tables were widely used by the navigators of the Age of Ex ploration, which was now in full swing, and were, for instance, used by Colum bus [121], Regiomontanus introduced Germany to the use of Arabic algebraic and trigonometric methods, reproducing the tables by the use of Gutenberg’s [114] then newfangled technique of printing. As might be expected of a Renaissance man, Regiomontanus also lectured on Vergil and Cicero. And, on the other hand, he published books on astrology, of which he was an ardent practitioner. In 1472 Regiomontanus made obser vations of a comet (later known as Hal ley’s) and this was the first time that comets were made the object of a scientific study, instead of serving merely to stir up superstitious terror. By 1475 his fame had grown so that he was sum moned to Rome by Pope Sixtus IV to help reform the Julian calendar, a proj ect that had been hanging fire for cen turies. However, Regiomontanus died in Rome the following year of the plague, and the project dragged on for nearly another century. [120] PACIOLI, Luca (pah-choh'lee) Italian mathematician Born: Sansepolcro, Tuscany, about 1445 Died: Sansepolcro, 1517 Pacioli studied mathematics when he was in the service of a rich Venetian merchant. He became a Franciscan friar about 1470 and wandered from place to place, teaching mathematics and writing books on arithmetic sufficiently success ful to net him positions as lecturer at such universities as those at Perugia, Naples, and Rome. At the court of Lu dovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, Pacioli met Leonardo da Vinci [122]. Pacioli taught Leonardo mathematics and in re turn, Leonardo helped illustrate one of Pacioli’s books. (Lucky Pacioli!) Pacioli also prepared both Latin and Italian ver sions of Euclid. Pacioli’s work on mathematics was of minor importance, but there are humble ways, too, in which it can be of use. In 1494, he had published his major work on arithmetic and geometry and it in cluded the first appearance in print of a detailed description of the method of double-entry bookkeeping. It may not seem much but such a device greatly fa cilitates the ease and accuracy with which business can be conducted and did its bit to contribute to the growth of the merchant states of western Europe on their way to world domination. [121] COLUMBUS, Christopher Italian explorer
1506
Not much is known of Columbus’ early life. Although it is generally thought he was born in Italy, there is nothing in his later life to make him seem an Italian. His writing was always in Spanish or Spanish-tinged Latin; he used a Spanish version of his name; and he showed no signs of any Italian sympa thies. There is a persistent, but un verified, rumor that he was born of a 70 [121] COLUMBUS
COLUMBUS [121] Spanish-Jewish family residing in Genoa at the time of his birth. The son of a weaver, Columbus re ceived an education, though this may have been from reading rather than for mal training. About 1465, rather than work as a wool comber like his father, he ran away to sea. While still young he sailed through the Mediterranean and is supposed to have made a trip to Iceland. In 1479 he married the daughter of a distinguished Italian navigator in the Portuguese service and this intensified his interest in navigation generally. He gained a knowledge of mapmaking and, very fortunately, gained just enough misinformation to believe with Posei- donius [52] that the earth was no more than eighteen thousand miles in circum ference. This was reinforced by a map by Toscanelli [113], with whom he was in contact in 1481. He had read eagerly of the wonders of the Indies in the book by Marco Polo [105] and it seemed to him that a voyage of only three thou sand miles west of Europe would bring him to those same Indies. (It is a common myth that Columbus believed the earth was round while ev eryone else thought it was flat. The fact is that the earth’s rotundity was accepted by all European scholars of the time. The only points of disagreement lay in the distance from Europe to Asia—that is, in the circumference of the earth— and in the feasibility of traveling that distance in the boats of the day.) In the early 1480s Columbus was, like his father-in-law, sailing in the service of Portugal and his passion for a westward trip finally goaded him into placing the project before the Portuguese king, John II. The king, in turn, referred it to the Portuguese geographers who, very prop erly, rejected it, for they were sure that Columbus’ claim of three thousand miles to Asia was a gross underestimate and that the surest route to Asia was around Africa. In this the experienced Portuguese were quite correct (Africa was successfully circumnavigated fifteen years later) and the Italian dreamer completely wrong. What neither of them knew, however, was that between Europe and Asia lay unknown continents and that these unknown continents did lie three thousand miles distant. (This is one of the more fortunate coincidences of history.) Columbus then tried to interest the city of Genoa, other Italian city-states, England, and Spain in his visionary plan and, for a while, met failure all around. In 1492, however, the monarchs of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella, had just wiped out the last remnant of Muslim rule over the peninsula, and in the glow of triumph they agreed to subsidize Co lumbus.
The subsidy was not a generous one, but on August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail with three small ships and 120 men (mostly from the prisons). On October 12 he landed on a small island of what he thought were the Indies. He explored various regions and returned to Spain and the sort of wild acclamation that these days is accorded an astronaut safely returned to earth. In the next ten years he made three more voyages to the Indies. He was given office in the new lands, but was as poor an administrator as he was coura geous a navigator, and that is very poor indeed. He died in eclipse, still believing that he had reached Asia. King Ferdinand, having watched with indifference while Columbus ended his life in misery, gave him a splendid fu neral. His body was eventually moved to the New World and now rests in the Dominican Republic. His voyage caught the imagination of Europe far more strongly than any pre vious ones. There were great explorers before Columbus, but Columbus drama tized exploration and did for ocean-going what Lindbergh [1249] was to do for air going more than four centuries later. It was impossible to make a trip of this sort without adding to man’s knowl edge. Columbus discovered new races of men, new plants, and new phenomena. He was the first to note, on September 13, 1492, the shifting of the direction in which the compass needle pointed as one traveled from place to place on the earth’s surface. (He kept this from his men lest they panic at the thought that they were heading into strange regions
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