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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
Didactics of Mathematics as a Scientific Discipline, 41-53.
© 1994 Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. behavioristic teaching theories. The subject matter was to be broken down into operationalistic goals. These goals were then to be organized into so- called taxonomies. In elementary school teaching, the "structural conception" was of great importance in developing curricula in addition to new math. Based on cognitive psychology (e.g., the works of Piaget), the structural conception stresses the analogy between scientific structures and learning structures (cf. Keitel, 1986). It asserts that basic mathematical structures are best fitted to further mathematical learning. "Spiral curriculum" and "explorative learning with structured material" were basic methodical principles. The structures of the German educational system, which allows basic changes only within an administrative framework, have hindered any inde- pendent curriculum development on a rather major scale. There were no equivalents to the extensive British or American curriculum projects such as SMSG, SMP, and SSMCIS (cf. Howson, Keitel, & Kilpatrick 1981). Curriculum development in Germany meant, and still means, that the gen- eral curricular plan of the KMK (Conference of the Federal Secretaries of Education) is concretized and adapted to the special conditions of the fed- eral states ("Bundesländer"). This (scarcely inquired) process is influenced by existing teaching practice and an extensive published didactic discussion treating the analysis of subject-matter problems ("Stoffdidaktik"). Stoffdi- daktik mainly deals with the subject matter under the aspects of mathemati- cal analysis and of transforming mathematical theories into school mathe- matics. Elementarizing, simplifying, and visualizing are central issues in this process. The question of choice concerning subject matter is often traced back to the question of what is characteristic and/or fundamental in mathe- matics. When discussing curricula and the underlying goals, it seems appro- priate to view the question on elementarizing and fundamental ideas as one focal point (cf. section 3). Another field of growing interest in curriculum development concerns the application of mathematics (cf. section 4). Due to limitations of space, I shall focus on high school curricula especially those of senior high school (and the specific sociocultural background); I shall not discuss textbooks and syllabi (cf. Tietze, 1992, and the references there). 1.1 Curriculum Development: Innovative Forces; Goals, Content, Methods, and their Justification This short survey shows that societal and political forces prompt and direct innovation. There is also pressure that is exerted by the scientific mathemat- ical community (mostly unconsciously and in a sociologically complex way). Howson, Keitel, and Kilpatrick (1981, p. 4) stress that there are also forces rooted in the educational system as a result of research, new educa- tional theories, or the pioneering work of individuals (e.g., Piaget, Bloom). The existence of new technologies that can be applied to education must likewise be subsumed under these innovating factors. The expected rewards 42 CURRICULA AND GOALS UWE-PETER TIETZE of innovation may also be a powerful impetus. Innovation is exciting, at- tracts the attention of others to one's work, foments approval, and, not sel- dom, contributes to the professional advancement of the educator. Curriculum means more than a syllabus or textbook – it must encompass aims, content, methods, and assessment procedures. In developing curricula, one must justify aims, content, and methods with rational and intersubjec- tive argument. In the German pedagogical discourse, one can primarily dis- tinguish two methods: (a) deriving aims from highly general normative statements, which serve as axioms, by using the rules of a deontic logic or – and this method is predominant and more convincing – (b) by goals-means arguments (cf. König, 1975). The goals-means arguments consist of systems of prescriptive and descriptive statements. Such goals-means arguments allow us to transfer the justification of a certain objective to objectives of greater generality – step by step. The question remains of how to justify the highest aims in such a hierarchy. This question was not a problematic one in mathematics education, as there is strong consensus on several general objectives (see below). The validation of a goals-means argument requires: (a) a clarification of semantics and syntax, and (b) an empirical validation of the descriptive part. From a pragmatic point of view, the clarification of the involved concepts is of great importance, but is often neglected. Statements such as "students shall learn to perform mathematical proofs" or "the student shall acquire qualifications in applying mathematics" can mean a great variety of objec- tives. The argument often used to justify mathematics in school, "mathemat- ics trains logical thinking," is not only nebulous in its semantics but also based on a transfer hypothesis that does not withstand closer examination. The idea that starting off with very general concepts (e.g., a general concept of variable) will facilitate the learning process reveals an implicit learning theory that lacks scientific sanction. This implicit learning theory influenced curriculum development especially in algebra and has increased learning difficulties in this subject, which is quite difficult as is. 1.2 Principles in Mathematics Education Normal curriculum development, the writing of schoolbooks and syllabi, is not guided by sophisticated goals-means arguments – if explicit arguments exist at all – but is rather based on so-called "didactic principles." Such prin- ciples, which are prescriptive statements based on descriptive assumptions (factual knowledge from psychology, pedagogics, mathematics, experience, etc.) and normative postulates (educational goals and objectives, societal goals, etc.) – for the most part implicit – say what should be done in mathe- matics teaching (Winter, 1984). The importance and acceptance of such principles changes over the course of time. The central (underlying) principle in traditional mathematics education, for example, was that of isolating difficulties. The subject matter 43 was divided into poorly integrated sections, each of which was character- ized by a special type of exercise. Integrative ideas and strategies were ne- glected. Mathematics appeared to the students as a collection of isolated types of exercise. This, in its essence, originally correct idea has turned into something false by exaggeration and oversimplification – a critical tendency inherent in most didactic principles. Although several authors feel that principles in mathematics education are of fundamental significance (e.g., Wittmann, 1975), there are empirical and other considerations that advise us to be careful in dealing with them. Several didactic principles, for example, recommend the intensive use and variation of visual representations. Empirical studies show, however, that iconic language can cause considerable additional difficulties in compre- hension (Lorenz & Radatz, 1980). Further principles that are problematic in a related respectively similar way are the operative principle and the prin- ciple of variation that demands the use of a variety of models for learning mathematical concepts. The main problem with didactic principles is the lack of a sound analysis of their descriptive and prescriptive components, which are often compounded. 2. NEW MATH AND COUNTERTENDENCIES The reform of the mid-1960s – often called the new math – adopted many characteristics of modern pure mathematics. The textbooks on calculus or linear algebra resembled, to a certain extent, university lectures in content, sequence, and diction. Subjective aspects such as the students' experiences, knowledge specific to their age group, and inner representation of concepts were scarcely taken into account. One consequence of the similarity of this approach to the systematic structure of formal scientific mathematics was that important subject matter had to be elementarized. This fact stimulated several interesting analyses and works in mathematical fields adjacent to school mathematics, such as the construction and characterisation of real numbers and the development of the function concept (cf. Steiner, 1966, 1969). At that time, a formalistic-logistic mathematical science had estab- lished itself at the universities, a mathematics that was not interested in a theory concerned with the meaning of mathematical concepts and that al- most completely ignored any reflection on mathematics and its application. In the beginning, this narrow scientific program was adopted by mathemat- ics educators. It soon provoked opposition. The main reason for this oppo- sition was the fact that highly abstract and formalized mathematical con- cepts proved impracticable in school. In high school, this effect became more and more pronounced the more the German Gymnasium lost its status as an elite school and became an educational institution for a significant part of the population. The higher vocational and technical schools, which had teachers who differed in their academic backgrounds, were not as strongly affected at that time by the wave of mathematical rigor as the general high 44 CURRICULA AND GOALS UWE-PETER TIETZE schools were. The critique of new math resulted in fruitful research and discussion from two perspectives that do not exclude each other, but repre- sent different focal points. 1. The first position focuses on the idea that mathematics education should further an undistorted and balanced conception of mathematics, in- cluding the aspects of theory, application, and mathematical modeling. It should also emphasize the learning of meaningful concepts (in the semantic sense) and the teaching of the fundamental ideas of mathematics, (a) Inter- esting papers have been published dealing with the question of how mathe- matical theories and concepts can be simplified and elementarized without falsifying the central mathematical content. Others focus on fundamental ideas, either for mathematics in general or for a specific field, (b) Some mathematics educators made it their objective to analyze epistemologically the process of mathematical concept and theory formation. They then tried to derive didactic consequences from this. 2. The other position considers the students and the benefits that mathe- matics can render to them. In the mid-1970s, (high school) mathematics ed- ucators were asking how curricula could be justified – mainly as a conse- quence of the lack of justification in the new math. Some authors referred to Wagenschein and Wittenberg, well-known educators in mathematics and natural sciences. They pleaded for the Socratic teaching method to encour- age students to discover mathematical ideas and theories by themselves. This also means teaching by examples without being pressured by a volu- minous canon of subject matter. Winter greatly influenced this discussion with his catalog of general objectives. This catalog is based on the question of "basic mathematical activities, which are rooted in normal everyday thinking and therefore can influence general cognitive abilities." (1975, p. 107, translated). Winter stresses: (a) the ability to argue objectively and to the point; (b) the ability to cognitively structure situations of everyday ex- perience, to detect relationships, and describe them in mathematical terms, or to develop mathematical tools and concepts with this in mind; and (c) creativity; that is, to acquire and use heuristic strategies to cope with un- known problems, especially strategies for developing and examining hy- potheses. This research and the implied curricular suggestions cited above can be regarded as a late but substantial attempt to explicate the central ped- agogical objective of school reform, that is, science propaedeutics in a way specific to the subject. Theories and results obtained from the psychology of learning were grad- ually introduced into mathematics education in high school. In elementary mathematics education, such questions and issues have had a long tradition. Didactic principles derived from the psychology of motivation and learning became important in developing curricula. Along with recognizing that di- dactic principles often proved to be problematic in their descriptive parts 45 46 (cf. section 1), attempts were undertaken to inquire into the processes of learning mathematics in general and those specific to certain topics. 3. ELEMENTARIZATION, FUNDAMENTAL IDEAS 3.1. Formation of Concepts and Theories Taking Calculus as an Example The question of how to facilitate the learning of mathematical theories by Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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