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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
elementarizing them is of central importance, especially in the upper classes
of secondary school. One can roughly discriminate three ways of doing this: 1. by suitably choosing basic definitions and axioms; for example, the foun- dation of differential calculus on the concept of continuity instead of on the concept of limit or taking the intermediate value property as a com- pleteness axiom; 2. by using stronger postulates; for example, one does not base calculus on the classical concepts of Cauchy continuity and limit, but on the concepts of Lipschitz continuity and differentiability; 3. by pursuing a so-called gradual development of exactness; the objectives are exact but not fully formalized concepts. The first two points of view have been the subject of controversy in edu- cational circles for many years. They are nevertheless considered outmoded today. The main critique of the second form of elementarization points out that it furthers the tendency to simplify merely in a technical way (such as for proofs); on the other hand, intuitive aspects of the concept could be ne- glected and the entire mathematical situation falsified. As regards the third way, Blum and Kirsch (1979) have suggested a curriculum (for basic courses) that stresses at the beginning the calculation of derivatives and not the question of their existence. One starts out with an "intuitive" idea of limit. This is then challenged, when the occurrence of a problem makes this desirable, for example, in the context of the product formula or of Kirsch (1976) has pleaded for an introduction to the integral concept that uses the naive idea of measure of area as its basis. Sequential steps of exactitude could be achieved by (a) formulating the properties of the area function, (b) making the students aware of the problem of existence, and (c) proving it. This conception can also be applied to proofs. As regards the derivative of one can start by calculating and by leaving the well-defined question of existence to a later step. This curricular idea shows that mathematical precision is not necessarily sacrificed when the axiomatic-deductive method is renounced. Exactitude is not needed here, however, at the beginning, but occurs as the result of a long process of questioning and clarifying. This process, which Fischer (1978) called exactifying, is also characteristic of many historical develop- CURRICULA AND GOALS UWE-PETER TIETZE ments in calculus. Exactifying means in calculus – also historically – the process of grappling with the original naive ideas of function, number, and limit. In arriving at the modern concepts, the question of existence plays an important role. The historical starting point of many mathematical concepts – this is es- pecially true for school mathematics – is a more-or-less practical problem. It has always been an objective of mathematics to find exact definitions of such concepts in order to avoid contradictions, and also to make possible communication between mathematicians. On the way to a precise (and for- mal) concept, many of the originally involved aspects are lost. For a math- ematician, this is not a problem, because he or she is mainly interested in working with the precise, up-to-date form of the concept and is not con- cerned with its historical and epistemological origin. For the nonmathemati- cian, especially the high school student, it is the other way around; in par- ticular, when the naive concept is to serve as an introduction to the mathe- matical concept. For the nonmathematician, for example, it does not make sense that a square cannot be divided into two (disjoint) congruent parts. The development of the function concept is of central interest in school. The common formal definition that uses sets of pairs is the result of a long historical process and has lost much of the original naive idea of drawing an uninterrupted curve by hand. Some of the original aspects emerge in addi- tional concepts like continuity, differentiability, integrability, and rectifia- bility, and constitute, as such, essential parts of differential and integral cal- culus. The function concept is fundamental in modern school mathematics and is taught at all levels. In Grades 1 to 6, students work propaedeutically with tables, arrow diagrams, and simple geometric mappings. In Grades 7 and 8, they become acquainted with important examples such as linear functions. In Grades 9 and 10, they learn a formal definition and a great va- riety of empirical and nonelementary functions (e.g., the square and its in- verse, exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions). The objective is to enable the students to develop a well-integrated scheme including graphs, tables, curves, arrow diagrams, and set-theoretical and algebraic as- pects and to discriminate between function, function value, term, equation, and graph. There has been research on concept formation, especially con- cerning the function concept (cf. Vollrath, 1989, and the references there). Exactifying is significant in the development of calculus curricula for two reasons: On the one hand, it is a central epistemological and methodological aspect and is therefore an important aim of teaching; on the other hand, it can and should be a leading idea in sequencing. New curricula in calculus usually accept the didactic principle of ac- knowledging the student's previous knowledge and preconceptions. From a didactic point of view, it does not make sense to expect the student to forget all about angle measure, for example, and then accept a definition by a bi- linear form. Such "antididactical inversions" are: defining convexity by first 47 and second derivative or introducing the integral by the antiderivative, thereby reducing the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to a mere definition and hindering applications. The student's formation of concepts can further be facilitated by the appropriate representation and by a suitable change in the representation mode (cf. Kirsch, 1977). Thus, some modern textbooks begin with graphical differentiation and integration. 3.2. Fundamental Ideas The conception "fundamental idea" can be seen as a response to the present- day flooding by extremely isolated and detailed knowledge. Since Bruner stressed the importance of fundamental ideas in his widely distributed book Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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