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partner, and even arguing against it (this is the extreme case of a conflicting
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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
partner, and even arguing against it (this is the extreme case of a conflicting situation). Robert and Tenaud (1989) assume that this phase of elicitation of the method is more widespread in group work than in individual work, and they consider it as supporting the development of an improvement of the solving process. Yackel (1991) develops a further argument, namely, that the discussion should involve several students (more than two), and supports her claim by an example of peer questioning in a 2nd-grade class, which fostered sophisticated forms of explanation and argumentation that were not present when students worked alone or in pairs. Group work may also allow the exteriorization of various strategies and lead students to a decentration of their point of view, because it pushes them to situate their solution among the various other ones. Moving from one 152 WORKING IN SMALL GROUPS solving strategy to another one is a second feature that may also be the ori- gin of conceptual progress: Knowing how to consider a problem under vari- ous points of view, how to move from one strategy to another one with re- gard to the problem to be solved, contributes to a more flexible use of knowledge and to a decontextualization of mathematical ideas. It should be noted that this ability of moving from one strategy to another one is particularly efficient for complex problems, which cannot be solved by routines or algorithms but require the combination of several approaches. This was exactly the case in the geometry problems used by Robert and Tenaud. It means that the possible superiority of group work is strengthened in complex situations, allowing a multiple approach and not a single routine solution. This interpretation of the role of the diversity of points of view is sup- ported by research findings from Hoyles, Healy, and Pozzi (1993). They identified four organizational styles in the group work they observed on various tasks at computers and noticed that in the "competitive" style (the group splits into competitive subgroups without communication), the oppor- tunity for exchanging and being confronted with alternative perspectives or different modes of representing the same problem space was reduced. These authors related this to the fact that this competitive style turned out to pro- vide both less productivity (quality of the group outcome in the task) and less effectiveness on the learning of new knowledge than a "collaborative" style in which students shared their local and global targets on the tasks in common discussions. However, the positive influence of peer discussion is questioned by some studies (Pimm, 1987, Pirie & Schwarzenberg, 1988). Fine-grained studies on episodes of collaborative small group activity (Cobb, Yackel, & Wood, 1992) focus on the construction of a shared meaning in social interaction (a meaning that is neither the intersection nor the addition of the individual meanings but arises out of the interaction), and state that this shared mean- ing emerges from a circular, self referential sequence of events rather than a linear cause-effect chain: "the students can be said to have participated in the establishment of the situations in which they learned" (Cobb, Yackel, & Wood, p. 99). This stresses the complexity of such social interaction situa- tions and may explain the diversity of research results. 3.1 Group Work at Computers Group work is enhanced in the mathematics classroom through the intro- duction of computers. Students very often work in small groups at the com- puter (2, 3, or 4 students). It has been observed that students are likely to subdivide the task into subtasks more often than in a paper-and-pencil task (Gallou, 1988, pp. 31-32; Hoyles & Sutherland, 1990): One student is in charge of manipulating on the computer (programming, typing, handling the mouse, etc.) while the other(s) propose(s) or even dictate(s) what is to be COLETTE LABORDE 153 done, like in the case study of Janet and Sally (Hoyles & Sutherland, 1990, pp. 328-329). The necessity of material manipulation may be a cause of or- ganization of work and "division of labor" hindering discussion. In the analysis of structures of interaction between several students solv- ing a joint task together at a computer, Krummheuer (1993) was able to observe a form of interaction that he calls "automatisiertes Trichtermuster" ("automatized funnel pattern"). This is very close to a common structure of interaction in traditional teaching between teacher and students: The "Trichtermuster" accounts for a communication that is established between the teacher and the students, in which, by narrower questions, the teacher manages to obtain the expected local answer from the students; this kind of interaction prevents students from constructing a global meaning of the sit- uation. In computer tasks, a similar communication may be established be- tween students dealing only with short actions to be done on a computer in order to obtain as rapidly as possible an expected effect on the screen in- stead of trying to carry out a shared reflection on a possible strategy for the whole mathematical problem. The device, through the material effects it can produce, absorbs all the interaction content, offering another kind of obsta- cle to the development of a solution. It must be stressed that it is difficult to escape the attraction of a narrow focusing on the computer, because the computer offers visible feedback to every action (effect of the action pro- duced on the screen). Hoyles, Healy, and Pozzi (1993) also observed a bet- ter group outcome when students could have discussions away from the computer during global target episodes. This group work at computer needs to be investigated more closely, especially since the introduction of direct Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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