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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
manipulation, which may reduce the discussion about local syntax problems
of programming. But new problems may arise from the meaning students give to this direct manipulation (cf. Hölzl, 1992). 4. LIMITATIONS OF THE FUNCTIONING OF COOPERATIVE WORK It has been mentioned that various immediate outcomes of a group work are possible even if the students agree on a common solution: (a) a better solu- tion is found than a single student would have produced; (b) the agreement on a solution is based on authority arguments; and (c) the agreement is based on cognitive grounds, but not mathematically satisfying ones even in the case of a right solution. We suggest that three categories of conditions play a role in the positive immediate outcome: choice of the partners, choice of the task, and length of interaction. 4.1 Choice of the Partners In their experiments, the Genevian social psychologists stress that the prob- lem posed to the children is essentially of social nature, that the sociocogni- 154 WORKING IN SMALL GROUPS tive tools are developed only for re-establishing an equilibrium of social nature (Carugaty & Mugny, cited in Mugny, 1985, p. 66). For them, the so- cial problems precede the cognitive problem. The problem situations we or- ganize involve a mathematical problem and complex contents; the solution processes require the use of mathematical knowledge, and we do not follow these researchers concerning the priority of the social problem. We consider that the overtaking of the situation by the social problem is a misdevelop- ment that must be avoided, and the equilibrium is, in our opinion, a concep- tual equilibrium related to mathematical conceptions of students. That is why the "cognitive distance" between the partners must have an optimal size: not too big (they cannot understand each other) and not too small (they have identical points of view). 4.2 Choice of the Task Researchers in mathematics education have stressed the influence of the task on the behavior of students in group work and on the content of their exchanges (Hoyles, Healy, & Pozzi, 1993; Robert & Tenaud, 1989). The task must provide a new situation for the students that they cannot solve immediately (a discussion in this case would be useless), but in which they can start with their previous knowledge, although it is not enough to achieve the task. The task must favor verbalizing and communicating between stu- dents: That is the reason why it can occur, when students have to do some- thing without justification, that they do not really exchange arguments on performing the task (e.g., procedural tasks on a computer). Cooperative work is enhanced when students have to describe or justify their solutions. Immediate objective feedback may also prevent a discussion between part- ners. 4.3 Length of the Interaction Process A too small period of time does not allow interaction to take place; the in- teraction process is not a sequential one. Time is needed to internalize what the partner is proposing, to relate the proposals to previous approaches, and to understand the consequences of the proposal. In many experiments (e.g., Cobb, Yackel, & Wood, 1992; Laborde, 1982), we could observe that a proposal made by a student is not adopted immediately by the partner, but may be taken into consideration when the latter has experienced some diffi- culties with his or her own approach. The complexity of the progress of the solving processes in group work is higher than in an individual situation (see below). 5. SOCIAL INTERACTION AS A COMPONENT OF THE "MILIEU" A constructivist perspective pays attention to situations in which the student must evolve on his or her own and not with the help of the teacher. For these situations, Brousseau (1986, p. 49) has stressed the role played by the COLETTE LABORDE 155 interactions of the student with a given "milieu," that is, all elements of the environment of the task on which students can act and which gives them feedback of various kinds on what they are doing. Offered by the situation itself, the feedback to the actions of the students must enable them to have access to information about what they have done, to infer some conclusions about the validity of their work, and to make other trials resulting in an adapted solution. Such feedback may give evidence to the students to what extent their solution is not pertinent, it may make contradictions apparent. These contradictions provoke an imbalance that can give rise to new at- tempts of equilibration: Knowledge can originate from this dynamical pro- cess of imbalance and re-equilibration. This feedback is not only of a mate- rial nature but can also be of an intellectual nature when it provokes some contradiction between what the student expects thanks to his or her previous knowledge and what he or she can observe in the situation. According to Margolinas (1993), the previous knowledge of the student takes the role of validity criteria. One can recognize the underlying Piagetian notions of equilibration and cognitive conflict. In this theoretical framework, social interactions between students are Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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