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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
frame surrounding any task or activity, and the linguistically presented task
or activity around which school mathematics pivots. Social context. The context of the mathematics classroom is a complex, organized social form of life that includes: 1. persons, interpersonal relationships, patterns of authority, student- teacher roles, modes of interaction, and so forth; 2. material resources, including writing media, calculators, microcomput- ers, texts representing school mathematical knowledge, furniture, an institu- tionalized location and routinized times; 3. the language of school mathematics (and its social regulation), includ- ing: (a) the content of school mathematics: the symbols, concepts, conven- tions, definitions, symbolic procedures and linguistic presentations of mathematical knowledge; and (b) modes of communication: written, iconic and oral modes, modes of representation and rhetorical forms, including rhetorical styles for written and spoken mathematics. For example, teacher-student dialogue (typically asymmetric in classroom forms) takes place at two levels: spoken and written. In written "dialogue," students submit texts (written work on set tasks) to the teacher, who re- sponds in a stylized way to their content and form (ticks and crosses, marks awarded represented as fractions, crossings out, brief written comments, etc.). This theorization draws on a number of sources that regard language and the social context as inextricably fused: Wittgenstein's philosophy, Foucault's theory of discursive practices, Vygotsky and Activity Theory, Halliday and sociolinguistics. For applications to the learning of mathemat- ics, see Walkerdine (1988), Pimm (1986) and Ernest (1991). Frame. This concept is elaborated in a number of different ways by Marvin Minsky, Erving Goffman and others, and applied to mathematical activity by Davis (1984) and Ernest (1987), albeit in an information-pro- cessing orientation. It resembles Papert and Lawler's concept of microworld, and that of "solution space" in problem-solving research. Frames concern a specific (but growing) range of tasks and activities, and each is associated PAUL ERNEST 345 PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS with a particular set of representations, linguistic and otherwise, a set of in- tellectual tools, both symbolic and conceptual (and possibly a set of manipu- lable tools, such as rulers or calculators). Frames have a dual existence, both public and private. The public aspect of a frame corresponds to a mathematical topic or problem type and the as- sociated language and intellectual tools. It constitutes what is taken as shared by a number of persons, although different instantiations of a frame will vary, for example, across time and social location. In its private aspect, a frame is constructed individually by each person (learner or teacher) as a sense-making and activity-performing device (resembling a "schema"). The meanings, conceptual tools and goal types make up a math-world, which is a subjective construction associated with the frame, at least in outline (specific details may be filled in during particu- lar tasks). Each individual's personal construction of a frame is associated with a body of cases of previous uses of the frame, sets of symbolic and conceptual tools, and stereotypical goals. Social interaction allows some meshing of the individually constructed frames, and a crucial feature of frames is that they are genetic, continually developing and growing as a re- sult of interaction and use (the varieties of frame use and growth correspond to Donald Norman's categories of schema use: tuning, routine use or assimi- lation, application, restructuring or accommodation). The process of frame utilization and growth requires the learner internal- izing and pursuing an activity-related goal (as in Leont'ev's version of Activity Theory). Particularly in the engagement with and performance of non-routine tasks, the learner will be making effort and success-likelihood estimations, and may disengage from the goals and give up the task or seek assistance from others. The learner may lack confidence and need reassur- ance; or may not be able to make the transformations unaided (i.e., lack a tool, or not know which to apply) in order to achieve the goal. Then the task lies within the learner's Zone of Proximal Development, and assistance en- ables the learner to make the symbolic transformations, hence to extend the appropriate frame so that ultimately she or he can undertake this challenging type of task unaided. Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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