Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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ADC(Pd) C1 R 1 = Cy C2 R 1 = t Bu C3 R 1 = Xyl C4 R 1 = 4-MeOC 6 H 4 Pd Cl Cl C N R 1 C HN N H R 1 N CPh 2
Complexes generated by the nucleophilic addition to (R 1 NC)Pd species [33]. CATALYTIC APPLICATIONS OF PALLADIUM-(ADC)S 149 Model Suzuki–Miyaura cross-coupling system Br MeO B(OH) 2 + MeO C1 −C4 0.001 mol% K 2
3 1.5 equiv EtOH, 80 °C, 2 h
Yields of the cross-coupling reaction with Pd-ADC: C1 97%, C2 64%, C3 96%, C4 94% Scheme 11.5 Catalytic activity of C1–C4 in the model Suzuki–Miyaura coupling [33]. PPh 3
PPh 3 Cl N N BF 4 D1 R = Me, D2 R = CH 2 Ph, D3 R = CHPh 2 , D4 R = H R R Figure 11.3 Palladium-ADC complexes D1–D4 [24]. +
CsF, THF reflux, 20 h R 1 R 2 Br (HO) 2 B R 1 R 2 Non asymmetric Suzuki–Miyaura cross-coupling R 1 = Ph, Xyl, 4-nBu-C 6 H 4 ,2-MeC
10 H 6 R 2 = Ph, C 10 H 7 , 2-MeC 10 H 6 Maximum yields (3 mol% catal. loading): D1 100%, D4 99% Asymmetric Suzuki–Miyaura cross-coupling Br OMe Br OMe
+ D1 or D4 (3 mol%)
CsF, THF reflux, 20 h OMe Pd-ADC Yields (ee) D1 95 (4) D2 85 (4) D3 64 (3) D4 99 (–) Scheme 11.6 Catalytic systems studied by Hong et al. [24]. led to an improved yield up to 100%. Hindered tri-ortho-substituted biaryls were produced in excellent yields (93–99%) and the catalysts allowed the tolerance of both methoxy and nitro functionalities. However, preparation of the challenging tetra-ortho-substituted biaryls was not successful and no reaction was observed. The catalyst was varied when producing binaphthyl species, indicating that the carbenes with the highest steric hindrance provided the lowest yields in this coupling. The authors believe that this might be attributed to the increasing steric repulsion making the ligands more labile. Catalyst
(PPh
3 ) 4 ], was tested in the catalysis, giving 64% yield of the target product. Unfortunately, the observed ee’s (3–4%) in the abovementioned asymmetric Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reaction were low with any of D1–D4. Recently an attempt was made [45] to use palladium(II) cationic complexes bearing ADCs, further stabilized by pyridine or other N-donor ligands (E1–E7 Fig. 11.4), as catalysts for the cross-coupling. Unfortunately, these interesting compounds were not effective catalysts for the Suzuki– Miyaura reaction of bromobenzene requiring a significant amount of Pd (up to 2 mol%) and inferior complexes with NHCs. The surprising and promising fact is that chlorobenzene in the presence of these catalysts proved to be as reactive as bromobenzene. Another feature of the Suzuki– Miyaura cross-coupling catalyzed by (ADC)Pd complexes is a very high reaction rate, as shown recently by the two groups [46, 47] who determined TOF for such catalysts. Thus, Hashmi and colleagues [47] synthesized a series of (ADC)Pd complexes via the addition of amines to coordinated isocyanides (Scheme 11.7). They found
150 PALLADIUM-(ADC) SPECIES IN CATALYSIS Cl Pd Cl
N N N i Pr i Pr i Pr i Pr E1 Me 2 N Pd Cl N N N i Pr i Pr i Pr i Pr E2 Cl Pd Cl N N N i Pr i Pr i Pr i Pr E3 N Me 2 N Pd
N N N i Pr i Pr i Pr i Pr E4 BF 4 Pd N N N i Pr i Pr i Pr i Pr E5 N N 2BF 4 2 Me 2 N Pd N N N i Pr i Pr i Pr i Pr E6 N BF 4 Pd N N N
i Pr i Pr i Pr E7 Cl N BF 4
Neutral (E1–E3) and cationic (E4–E7) (ADC)Pd complexes [45]. Cl Pd C N R 1 Cl Et N C N R 1 Et Cl Pd C C Cl N R 1 N R 1 H Et 2 NH R 1 = t Bu F1, 2,6-(i Pr) 2 C 6 H 3 F2 Cl Pd C N R 1 Cl C N R 1 H R 1 = t Bu F3, 2,6-(i Pr) 2 C 6 H 3 F4 THF, rt THF, rt
N C 9 H 16 NH Scheme 11.7 Systems studied by Hashmi and colleagues [47]. that the Suzuki– Miyaura cross-coupling of 4-bromobenzaldehyde and 2-methoxyphenylboronic acid catalyzed by F1–F4 provided the target biaryls with 83–96% yields and with the TOFs up to 18,050 h −1 .
coupling of isocyanides and heterocyclic imines, for example, 3-iminoisoindolin-1-ones [31, 32] or 1,3-diiminoisoindoline [46]. Among the latter species, complexes containing one aminocarbene and one phosphine ligand (Fig. 11.5, G1–G3) demonstrated highest efficiency in the coupling of aryl bromides with arylboronic acids (yields 77–99%) with the TOFs up to 37,000 h −1 .
Heck Reaction Furstner and colleagues [29] reported on application of (ADC)Pd complexes as catalysts for the Heck reaction (for recent surveys on the Heck reaction and its applications, see References [48–52]). They have prepared a series of (ADC)Pd complexes (Fig. 11.6, H1–H5) via an oxidative insertion of [Pd (PPh 3
4 ] into the C–Cl bond of various acyclic 2- chloroamidinium salts and related compounds. The generated species were engaged as catalysts for the Heck coupling of bromo- or iodobenzene with butyl acrylate (Scheme 11.8). The catalytic system operated at 120 ◦ C for 18 h using N- methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) as a solvent and Cs 2 CO 3 as a base. The target disubstituted olefins were prepared in 56–92% yields in the systems based on H1–H3. Activities exhibited by the ADC systems are comparable to those demonstrated by the related complexes bearing NHCs (Fig. 11.6, H6–H13). Dhudshia and Thadani [28] used (ADC)Pd complexes with A1 (Scheme 11.3) in an intermolecular Heck reaction of aryl bromides with an electron-deficient alkene. The target species were isolated in 78–85% yields under optimized catalytic CATALYTIC APPLICATIONS OF PALLADIUM-(ADC)S 151 PPh
3 Cl Pd C N H R 1 N NH N
R 1
CMe 2 CH 2 CMe
3 (G3) Figure 11.5 Chelated ADC-Pd complexes as catalysts of the Suzuki–Miyaura reaction [46]. Ph 3
M PPh
3 Cl N N Ph 3 P M PPh 3 Cl N N PF 6 Ph 3 P Pd Cl Cl N N Ph 3 P Pd Cl Cl N YPh H1 (M = Pd, n = 2), H15 (M = Ni, n = 2), H16 (M = Ni, n = 1) H2 (M = Pd), H17 (M = Ni) H3 H4 (Y = O), H5 (Y = S) Ph 3 P Pd PPh 3 Cl H6 (X = Cl), H7 (X = PF 6 ) N N Ph Ph 3 P Pd Y Cl H8 (Y = PPh 3 , X = PF 6 ),
H9 (Y = Cl, X = no) N N (CH 2 ) 2 tBu t Bu(H 2 C) 2 Ph 3 P Pd Y Cl H10 (Y = PPh 3 , X = PF 6 ),
H11 (Y = Cl, X = no) N N Ph Ph Ph 3 P Pd PPh
3 Cl
H13 (X = PF 6 ) N N Ph 3 P M PPh 3 Cl N N
n H14 (M = Pd, X = PF 6 ), H18 (M = Ni, X = PF 6 ), H19 (M = Ni, X = BF 4 ) PF 6 X X X X X Figure 11.6 Series of (ADC)Pd complexes with additional phosphine ligands [29]. Model Heck cross-coupling system X OBu + OBu
H1 −H3, H6–H13 1 mol% O O
2 CO 3 , NMP 120
°C, 18 h X = I: Yields up to 80–92% for H1–H3 (87–100% for H6–H13) X = Br: Yields up to 56–77% for H1–H3 (51–98% for H6–H13) Scheme 11.8 Comparison of the catalytic properties for H1–H3 (ADCs) and H6–H13 (NHCs) in the Heck reaction [29]. conditions (Scheme 11.9). The corresponding aryl chlorides, however, were poorer substrates for the Heck reaction (35% and 29% isolated yields of the target species) under the conditions shown in Scheme 11.9. For comparison, the previously described [29] system employing (NHC)Pd’s H6–H13 (note that butyl acrylate was employed as the substrate instead of methyl acrylate) was used. Inspection of these results clearly indicates that (ADC)Pd catalyst containing A1 ligands and NHC catalysts H6–H13 exhibit comparable catalytic properties. Moreover, the reaction catalyzed by Pd-A1 requires shorter reaction time (8 h vs 18 h for H6–H13) and lower catalyst loadings (0.5 mol% of Pd-A1 vs 1.0 mol% of H6–H13).
152 PALLADIUM-(ADC) SPECIES IN CATALYSIS Pd 2
3 0.5 mol% A1 1.25 mol% nBu 4 NBr 1.25 mol% Cs 2 CO 3 2 equiv
DMF/THF, 110 °C, 8 h
Heck cross-coupling system 4-R
1 C 6 H 4 Br + H 2 C=C(H)CO
2 Me 4-R 1 C 6 H 4 C(H)=C(H)CO 2 Me Yields: R 3 = H 78%, R 3 = F 85%
Scheme 11.9 Heck reaction catalyzed by palladium-diaminocarbene complexes with A1 [28]. Thus, both the described (ADC)Pd complexes systems demonstrated comparable or higher activity than those based on (NHC)Pd’s, furnishing products in similar yields under comparable reaction conditions, and employing lower or similar catalyst loadings [29].
One example for both copper cocatalyzed and copper-free protocols for the (ADC)Pd-catalyzed Sonogashira coupling was reported (for recent surveys on the Sonogashira coupling and its applications, see References [53, 54]). The (ADC)Pd with
and aliphatic alkynes (prop-2-yn-1-ol) [28]. The optimized Cu-free protocol acts at RT, furnishing target species in 80–91% yields (Scheme 11.10). In conclusion, this reported system demonstrated at least comparable efficiency (similar catalyst loading, reaction time, and temperature) to some of the most efficient (NHC)Pd’s [55–59]. A series of (ADC)Pd complexes was generated via the metal-mediated coupling between one or two isocyanide ligands in
2 (CNR) 2 ] (R = Xyl, tBu, Cy) and N-phenylbenzamidine, HN=C(Ph)NHPh. This coupling proceeds with different regioselectivity upon varying the substituent R of an isocyanide (Scheme 11.11) [34]. The catalytic activity of two representative species, that is, I1 and I2 in the Sonogashira cross-coupling of 4-NO 2 C
H 4 I with oct-1-yne (EtOH, K 2 CO 3 , 60
◦ C) yielding 1-nitro-2-(oct-1-ynyl)benzene, was evaluated. The system involving I2 exhibits slightly higher catalytic efficiency (yields up to 99%, TONs up to 2000; TOFs up to 280 h −1 ) than that constructed on I1 (yields up to 99%, TONs up to 1400; TOFs up to 120 h −1 ). Moreover, catalytic activities of both systems are substantially higher than that of the conventional system based on [PdCl 2 (PPh 3 ) 2 ] (yield 40%, TON 400; TOF 22 h −1 ) [60]. In addition, I2 was also used for the synthesis of 1-(dodeca-1,3-diyn-1-yl)-2-nitrobenzene (Scheme 11.12) from 1-iodo- 2-nitrobenzene and dodeca-1,3-diyne (EtOH, K 2 CO
, 50 ◦ C). The authors found that this acyclic carbene is a significantly more efficient catalyst for the Sonogashira reaction with diynes (as compared to the previously used Pd (OAc)
2 ) [61],
providing 1-(dodeca-1,3-diyn-1-yl)-2-nitrobenzene in 97% yield with TON up to 1400. However, it is difficult to compare [Pd
2 (allyl)Cl 2 ] (1.5 mol%) A1 (4.0 mol%, prepared in situ) Cs 2 CO 3 (2 equiv) toluene–THF, 16 h, rt Yields: 80–90% Ar Br
Ar R Ar = 2-MeC 6 H 4 , 2-MeOC 6 H 4 , 2-Me-4-MeOC 6 H
, 2,6-Me 2 C 6 H 3 , 3-Br-pyridine, 3-Br-quinoline; R = Ph, HOCH 2
Catalytic properties of palladium complex with A1 in the Sonogashira reaction [28]. −HCl −HCl
I2 Cl Pd C N Xyl N C N C H Ph N Xyl
Ph Cl Pd C C Cl N R N R C Pd Cl N C N C Ph Ph N
H N
R = t Bu R = Xyl I1 HN=C(Ph)NHPh HN=C(Ph)NHPh
Preparation of aminocarbene complexes I1 and I2 [34]. FINAL REMARKS 153 C 8 H 17 I + I2, CuI, PPh 3 NO 2 NO 2 K 2 CO 3 , EtOH, 6 h, reflux C 8
17 Scheme 11.12 Synthesis of 1-(dodeca-1,3-diyn-1-yl)-2-nitrobenzene catalyzed by I2 [34]. Model Buchwald–Hartwig reaction: Y X
Y N
(1 mol%) HN O O Substrates: 2-Chloropyridine (X = Cl, Y = N); bromobenzene (X = Br, Y = CH);
Yields 100% for X = Cl, Y = N; Yields 82–92% for X = Br, Y = CH
Yield 47% for X = Cl, Y = N Scheme 11.13 Amination reaction catalyzed by ADCs (H2, H4, H5), and NHC (H14) [29]. the efficiency of the system based on I1 or I2 with the related (NHC)M’s, because in the former case, very specific substrates were employed. 11.3.4 Buchwald– Hartwig Amination Preprepared (ADC)Pd complexes H2 (Fig. 11.6) was employed [29] as catalyst for the Buchwald– Hartwig amination of aryl halides (for the recent surveys on the Buchwald– Hartwig cross-coupling, see References [62–65]). The obtained results (Scheme 11.13) were compared with those for the structurally related oxyamino- (H4), thioaminocarbene (H5), and the related NHC complex, H14. Catalysts H2, H4, and H5 were efficient in the amination of bromobenzene (yields range from 82% to 92%), demonstrating activities similar to those of the NHC complex H14 (yield 84%). With 2-chloropyridine as the substrate, H2, H4, and H14, allowed the preparation of the target product in a quantitative yield. Catalyst H5 demonstrated a moderate efficiency (yield 47%). 11.4 FINAL REMARKS In this chapter, we examined the accumulated data on application of (ADC)Pd complexes as catalysts for various cross- coupling reactions. Although all reports discussed here indicate that (ADC)Pd complexes exhibit comparable or even higher activities than the corresponding (NHC)Pd’s, in our opinion, it is rather premature to make any conclusions based on a limited number of reports on catalytic applications of (ADC)Pd complexes. Another consequence of the latter fact is that no clear relationship between the structure of (ADC)Pd complexes and their catalytic properties could be currently arrived at. More experimental data as well as mechanistic studies on (ADC)Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling processes are required to open up a possibility for an intelligent (e.g., “in silica”) design of the catalyst instead of those based on an empirical variation of functional groups. We believe that the principal advantage of (ADC)Pd-based catalysts as compared to Pd-NHCs, verified at the current stage of the studies, is the more modular character of the former species. Among routes leading to (ADC)Pd complexes, metal-mediated reactions of isocyanides with various nucleophiles permit a straightforward assembly of a wide range of well-defined metal carbene catalysts, including unsymmetrically substituted and chiral compounds. Finally, taking into account the current trends in transition metal-catalyzed organic transformations, it is anticipated that further applications of (ADC)Pd complexes should include, among others, (i) development of mild and efficient systems acting in alternative solvents (e.g., ionic liquids) or under heterogeneous catalytic conditions and (ii) usage of chiral (ADC)Pd complexes for asymmetric catalytic transformations. All these expected fields of applications resemble those where (NHC)Pd catalysts have already demonstrated great benefits. 154 PALLADIUM-(ADC) SPECIES IN CATALYSIS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank Saint Petersburg State University for a research grant, the Federal Targeted Program “Scientific and Scientific-Pedagogical Personnel of the Innovative Russia in 2009– 2013” (contract P676 from 20/05/2010), Russian Fund for Basic Research (grants 11-03-00048-a, 12-03-00076-a, 12-03-33071, 13-03-12411-ofim), and RAS Presidium Subprogram coordinated by acad. N. T. Kuznetsov. In addition, this work has been partially supported by the Fundac¸˜ao para a Ciˆencia e a Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal, its PPCDT program (FEDER funded), and through the research projects PTDC/QUI- QUI/098760/2008 and PTDC/QUI-QUI/109846/2009.
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