Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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- Perovskite Spinel Scheme 32.5
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Scheme 32.3 Synthesis of group 2/group12 and 13 aryloxo-organometallic complexes.
ORGANOMETALLICS IN THE SYNTHESIS OF HETEROMETALLIC COMPLEXES 441 3 4 Figure 32.3 Molecular structure of [Ba {(μ-ddbfo) 2 InMe 2 } 2 ] (3) and [Ba {(μ-ddbfo) 2 ZnEt
} 2 ] (4) (the H atoms are omitted for clarity). (See insert for color representation of the figure.) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 2
(a)
(b) Figure 32.4 Powder XRD patterns of (a) BaAl 2 O
(ICSD 10036) and (b) [Ba {(μ-ddbfo) 2 AlMe
2 } 2 ] decomposed at 1300 ◦ C. Our recent studies on relatively cheap and air-stable group 4 metallocenes showed that Cp 2 MCl 2 (M = Ti 4 + , Zr 4 + , Hf 4 + ) species are attractive precursors to an extensive range of novel polymetallic molecular and supramolecular materials [3, 6, 15, 18, 19]. For example, the reaction of Cp 2 TiCl
2 with 2 equiv of Ca(OCH 2 CH
OCH 3 ) 2 and an excess of CH 3 OCH
2 CH 2 OH in toluene at room temperature produced the colorless, Cp-free, heterometallic [Ca 4 Ti
( μ 6 -O)( μ 3 , η 2 -OCH 2 CH 2 OCH
3 ) 8 ( η-OCH
2 CH 2 OCH 3 ) 2 Cl 4 ] complex (Fig. 32.5). This synthetic approach comprised the elimination of a Cp ring from Cp 2 TiCl 2 as CpH and was promoted by calcium 2-methoxyethanoxide and alcohol as a source of protons. The same synthetic approach led us to obtain various heterometallic complexes, with a general formula presented in Scheme 32.4. Whether only one or both Cp ligands are exchanged, or whether both processes take place side by side, strongly depends upon the reactants involved, their stoichiometric ratios, and the nature of alcohol [15, 19]. These guarantee practical control over the composition of the final product. Thus, on the basis of a metal’s ratio at the molecular level, we can easily predict the composition of the oxide products after thermolysis (Scheme 32.5) [15]. Generally, halide-derived compounds are considered as unattractive precursors for metal oxides because their decom- position leads to by-products that are corrosive and they create multiphase systems. There are, however, some examples
442 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS IN THE SYNTHESIS OF NEW MATERIALS: OLD LIGANDS, NEW TRICKS Figure 32.5 Molecular structure of [Ca 4 Ti
( μ 6 -O)( μ 3 , η 2 -OCH 2 CH 2 OCH
3 ) 8 ( η-OCH
2 CH 2 OCH 3 ) 2 Cl 4 ] (the H atoms are omitted for clarity) and its Ca 4 Ti
( μ 6 -O)O 8 Cl 4 core. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) M Cl
4M ′(OR)
2 + 2
+ ROH (excess)
Toluene − H
2 [M ′ 4 M 2 ( μ 6 -O)Cl 4 (OR) 10 (ROH)
x ] + 4CpH
M ′ = Sr
2+ , Ba
2+ , Ca
2+ , Mn
2+ M = Ti
4+ , Zr
4+ , Hf
4+ x = 0–4 N OH O OH or ROH =
Synthesis of heterobimetallic complexes derived from M (OR) 2 alkoxides and group 4 metallocenes. nCa(OR) 2 + Ti Cl Cl + ROH (excess)
n = 1 n = 2 Toluene
− H 2 [CaTiCl 2 (OR)
6 ] + 2CpH [Ca 2 TiCl 2 (OR)
6 Cl 2 ] + 2CpH
Thermolysis Thermolysis CaTiO 3
2 TiO
4 ROH =
N OH
Spinel Scheme 32.5 Synthesis of heterometallic compounds with different Ca(OR) 2 /Cp
2 TiCl
2 ratios.
to the contrary. For instance, [Zn 7 (OAc) 10 ( μ-OH) 6 Cu 5 (dmae) 4 Cl 4 ] (dmae
= 2-(dimethylamino)ethanolate) has been used in chemical vapor deposition to give highly phase-pure Cu 5 Zn
O 12 [20]. Our recent studies have also confirmed such a phenomenon. For example, the barium–hafnium complex [Ba 4 Hf 2 ( μ 6 -O)(
μ 3 , η 2 -OCH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 ) 8 ( η-OCH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 ) 2 ( η-HOCH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 ) 4 Cl 4 ] was obtained from the reaction of Cp 2 HfCl 2 and an appropriate group 2 barium alkoxide [18]. The key factor was to choose the appropriate thermolysis CONCLUSIONS 443 [Ba
4 Hf 2 (O)(OR) 10 (ROH) 4 Cl 4 ] 800
° C − Volatiles 2 BaCl
2 + 2
BaHfO 3 + deionized H 2 O − 2 BaCl
2 2 BaHfO 3 White
nanopowder ROH = 2-Methoxyethanol Scheme 32.6 Producing BaHfO 3 nanoparticles from the barium–hafnium complex. 560 580
600 620
640 660
680 700
5 D 0 – 7 F 0 (d) 1300 °C (c) 1100 °C (b) 1000 °C (a) 900 °C Intensity (a.u) Wavelength (nm) BaHfO
3 :Eu
3+ (3%)
5 D 0 – 7 F 1 5 D 0 – 7 F 2 (a) (b) (c)
(d) Electric dipole transition Magnetic dipole transition Figure 32.6 Emission spectra of BaHfO 3 :Eu
3 + sintered at various temperatures. conditions. This complex undergoes thermal decomposition at 800 ◦ C to a BaCl 2 /BaHfO
3 mixture in a 1 : 1 molar ratio. After barium dichloride has been leached from the raw powder using deionized water (Scheme 32.6), the resulting particles are in the size range of 30–50 nm. We have also shown that the barium hafnate derived from this molecular precursor could be an attractive host lattice for Eu-doped phosphors. A strong emission, derived from the 5 D
– 7 F 2 transition in the BaHfO 3 matrix, has been observed for the first time as a dominant line and could be particularly useful as a red-light-emitting phosphor (Fig. 32.6). The oxidation number of the europium ion and, consequently, the photoluminescence properties of Eu-doped oxide materials depend strictly on the heating atmosphere. Sintering in air produces materials containing trivalent europium, which emits in the red wavelength region, while sintering in a N 2 /H
mixture produces europium dopant as a divalent ion with emissions in the green wavelength region [12]. Our investigations along these lines are currently underway and we intend to expand our studies to other technologically important elements [18].
Organometallic chemistry plays a crucial role in the development of new functional materials, both from a conceptual point of view and via the ability to tune microstructures. This chapter has shown efficient synthetic routes to access well- defined heterometallic complexes derived from organometallic species. The presented approaches are easily generalized, and other heterobimetalic and heteropolymetallic compounds can be obtained. The resulting compounds are excellent molecular precursors to double oxides. Our investigations have indeed shown that they produce highly phase-pure materials and the temperatures used for their preparation are significantly lower than in other conventional solid-state reactions. The obtained double oxides also constitute attractive matrices for lanthanide-doped phosphors. 444 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS IN THE SYNTHESIS OF NEW MATERIALS: OLD LIGANDS, NEW TRICKS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to express their gratitude to the National Science Centre (grant number: 2011/03/B/ST5/01040) for financial support.
1. Bradley, D. C.; Mehrotra, R. C.; Rothwell, I. P.; Singh, A. Alkoxo and Aryloxo Derivatives of Metals; Academic Press: London, 2001. 2. Kessler, V. G. Chem. Commun. 2003, 1213. 3. Szafert, S.; John, Ł .; Sobota, P. Dalton Trans. 2008, 6509. 4. Utko, J.; Ejfler, J.; Szafert, S.; John, Ł .; Jerzykiewicz, L. B.; Sobota, P. Inorg. Chem. 2006, 45 , 5302. 5. Utko, J.; Szafert, S.; Jerzykiewicz, L. B.; Sobota, P. Inorg. Chem. 2005, 44 , 5194. 6. Sobota, P.; Utko, J.; John, Ł .; Jerzykiewicz, L. B.; Dr ˛ a g-Jarz ˛ a bek, A. Inorg. Chem. 2008, 47 , 7939. 7. (a) Tesh, K. F.; Burkey, D. J.; Hanusa, T. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116 , 2409; (b) Hitchcock, P. B.; Lappert, M. F.; Lowless, G. A.; Royo, B. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1990, 1141. 8. (a) Turova, N. Ya.; Turevskaya, E. P.; Kessler, V. G. Yanovsky, A. I.; Struchkov, Y. T. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1993, 21; (b) Turova, N. Ya.; Turevskaya, E. P.; Kessler, V. G.; Yanovskaya, M. I. The Chemistry of Metal Alkoxides; Kluwer Academic Publisher: Boston, 2002. 9. Decon, G. B.; Forsyth, C. M.; Junk, P. C. J. Organomet. Chem. 2000, 607 , 112. 10. Goel, S. C.; Matchett, M. A.; Chiang, M. Y.; Buhro, W. E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113 , 1844. 11. Tomaszewski, P. Phase Transit. 1992, 38 , 127. 12. John, Ł .; Kosi´nska-Kl¨ahn, M.; Jerzykiewicz, L. B.; K ˛epi´nski, L.; Sobota, P. Inorg. Chem. 2012, 51 , 9820. 13. John, Ł .; Utko, J.; Szafert, S.; Jerzykiewicz, L. B.; K ˛epi´nski, L.; Sobota, P. Chem. Mater. 2008, 20 , 4231. 14. John, Ł .; Sobota, P. Alkoxide Molecular Precursors for Nanomaterials: A One Step Strategy for Oxide Ceramics, in Ceramic Materials; W¨underlich, W.; Ed. Sciyo: Croatia, 2010. 15. Sobota, P.; Dr ˛ a g-Jarz ˛ a bek, A.; John, Ł .; Utko, J.; Jerzykiewicz, L. B.; Duczmal, M. Inorg. Chem. 2009, 48 , 6584. 16. (a) Alt, H. G.; K¨oppl, A. Chem. Rev. 2000, 100 , 1205–1222; (b) Coates, G. W. Chem. Rev. 2000, 100 , 1223. 17. Sessoli, R.; Gatteschi, D.; Caneschi, A.; Novak, M. A. Nature 1993, 365 , 141. 18. Dr ˛ a g-Jarz ˛ a bek, A.; Kosi´nska, M.; John, Ł .; Jerzykiewicz, L. B.; Sobota, P. Chem. Mater. 2011, 23 , 4212. 19. Sobota, P.; Dr ˛ a g-Jarz ˛ a bek, A.; Utko, J.; Jerzykiewicz, L. B. Organometallics 2011, 30 , 1741. 20. Hamid, M.; Tahir, A. A.; Mazhar, M.; Zeller, M.; Hunter, A. D. Inorg. Chem. 2007, 46 , 4120. 21. Tanner, P. S.; Williams, R. A.; Hanusa, T. P. Inorg. Chem. 1993, 32 , 2234.
33 THE ROLE OF ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES IN THE SYNTHESIS OF SHAPED CARBON MATERIALS Neil J. Coville* DST/NRF Centre of Excellence in Strong Materials and Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Edward N. Nxumalo Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa 33.1 INTRODUCTION The emergence of the field of nanotechnology is closely associated with discoveries and studies carried out in the field of carbon chemistry. The discovery of fullerene [1], followed by simple strategies to make fullerenes [2]; the seminal studies on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [3], following extensive studies on carbon fibers [4]; and the recent simple synthesis of single layer graphene [5] have all furthered developments in the “nano” arena. A key feature in these new carbon structures is that carbon atoms bond together to lead to carbon-rich structures in which the presence of non-carbon atoms is limited. Typically, non-carbon atoms satisfy the carbon valences at the edges of the “all” carbon structures, although non-carbon atoms can also be substituted into the carbon structures purposefully to yield doped materials [6]. The wide range of carbon structures that have been made reveals that carbon atoms readily knit together to form the new 3D structures. The rules by which this happens are the same as those used to make the classical 1D and 2D structures commonly synthesized in chemical laboratories. However, synthetic strategies to make long-chain polymers (polyacetylene, for example) or to make the building blocks of graphene (e.g., naphthalene and anthracene) are well understood, whereas the same is not true for the 3D structures made of carbon. The structural motifs that are formed are determined by (i) the hybridization state of the carbon, (ii) the carbon source, (iii) the energy supplied to the carbon reactants, and (iv) the template or catalyst used to make/break carbon bonds [7]. The focus of this mini-review is on the later factor, namely, the role of the catalyst in making a carbon material that has shape. In particular, the focus will be on the role of organometallic complexes in assisting this process. Reviews of the literature on the role of organometallic complexes in the synthesis of CNTs [8] and nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes (NCNTs) [6] have been written. However, to date, little has been discussed about the role of these catalysts in affecting the shape of the carbons produced. 33.2 GENERAL COMMENTS A consideration of studies in which organometallic catalysts have been used to make shaped carbon materials (SCMs) reveals that studies are dominated by the use of ferrocene (FcH) and Fe(CO) 5 , with many, many studies being reported Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
446 THE ROLE OF ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES IN THE SYNTHESIS OF SHAPED CARBON MATERIALS Fe CO
CO CO OC Fe (b)
(a) Figure 33.1 (a) Ferrocene, (b) Fe(CO) 5 .
available and have excellent physical properties. These properties allow for simple synthetic methodologies to be used to make the SCMs. Fe is a well-known catalyst that is used to make SCMs. A typical catalyst is made from a high-oxidation-state Fe precursor (typically placed on a support) that is reduced to Fe(0) before reaction with carbon-containing reactants. These reactants, when passed over the catalyst under appropriate conditions, decompose on the Fe to form carbon atoms that either dissolve in the Fe and reprecipitate or recombine on the Fe surface to give the product [9]. The diameter of the carbon structure is determined by the diameter of the Fe catalyst particle. In contrast, the use of volatile organometallic catalysts provides an alternate route to the above process. In this type of reaction, the catalyst, together with the carbon reactants, is introduced into a reactor in the gas phase where they decompose to give metal atoms/clusters and carbon atoms/radicals. The process is referred to as a floating catalyst process since a volatile catalyst is used. An advantage is that CNTs made using this type of approach can be produced in a continuous manner, compared to the typical batch process using a conventional chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method. Indeed, the HiPco process is a commercial continuous process used to make single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) using Fe(CO) 5 as a catalyst [10]. 33.3 THE SHAPES TAKEN BY CARBON Carbon atoms can be sp 1 , sp
2 , or sp
3 hybridized and this will impact on the way carbon– carbon bonds will link together. Linear structures will be generated by sp 1 hybridized carbon atoms, while sp 2 hybridized carbons will lead to 2D structures that may or may not show curvature (fullerene vs graphene sheet). In contrast, 3D structures are generated by sp 3 hybridized carbon atoms, as found in diamond. Not unexpectedly, many of the new carbons that have been synthesized can contain a mixture of sp 2 or sp
3 hybridized carbon atoms and this allows for a diverse range of shapes. Carbons formed with mixed hybridized carbons will generally be amorphous with little long-range order as typically found in soot. However, even these mixed carbons can be structured to generate SCMs (see below). Given that carbon can bond in different ways, a wide range of structures can be made. The well-known shapes include tubes and fibers. These structures are built up of sp 2 carbon atoms arranged with graphene layers arranged perpendicular or at an angle to the tube/fiber axis. The ends of the carbon layers will be bonded to non-carbon atoms (typically O and H atoms) but may also be bonded to sp 3 hybridized carbon atoms. The fibers may or may not have a hollow core (Fig. 33.2). While CNTs and carbon nanofibers (CNFs) are generally shown in cartoon form as being straight, this is rarely found in practice. Most CNTs and CNFs are twisted and can coil along their length. Figure 33.3 indicates the twisting that can occur, eventually leading to coil formation, while Fig. 33.4 indicates the TEM image of a real sample showing this phenomenon. The carbon atoms can also arrange to give spherical structures as found in fullerenes. This type of structure is also found in carbon spheres (CSs): spherical carbons with a multilayer structure that can be hollow or filled (Fig. 33.5) [11]. Here the carbon atoms are found in domains that pack together to give the final structure. The shapes generated as the carbon–carbon bonds form can also include horns [12], cages [12], coils, and spirals [13]. A wide range of coiled and spiral-shaped carbons can be formed that vary in terms of tube diameters and the coiling dimensions (see Reference 13, p. 196, for examples). In the sections below, spherical carbon structures (including fullerenes) will not be discussed in any detail; in many instances their synthesis does not require a catalyst [11].
THE SHAPES TAKEN BY CARBON 447 (a)
(b) (c)
Figure 33.2 Cartoon showing (a) multiwalled carbon nanotube, (b) solid plate-like carbon nanofiber, and (c) hollow herringbone carbon. (a) (b)
(c) Figure 33.3 Cartoon showing (a) a straight fiber, (b) a twisted fiber, and (c) a coiled fiber. Figure 33.4 TEM images of CNTs obtained from the pyrolysis of toluene and ferrocene in the presence of 4% aniline (Letsoala, P. Unpublished data, MSc thesis).
448 THE ROLE OF ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES IN THE SYNTHESIS OF SHAPED CARBON MATERIALS (a) (b)
(c) Figure 33.5 Cartoon of (a) hollow, (b) core–shell, and (c) filled spheres [11]. Reprinted from Reference 11b. Copyright 2011, with permission from ScholarOne Manuscripts.
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