Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
THE CATALYST– CARBON INTERACTION
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- 33.6.1 CNTs and CNFs
- 33.6.2 Aligned and Nonaligned Carbons
- 33.6.3 Branched Carbons
- 33.6.4 Bamboo Structures
33.4 THE CATALYST– CARBON INTERACTION Superimposed on the effect of carbon hybridization in affecting carbon shape is that of the catalyst particle. The catalyst particle influences the shape of the resultant carbon structure by (i) its size, (ii) its interaction with a support or template (when used), and (iii) its shape as reflected by the crystal faces exposed to the reactants. Control of the catalyst particle’s morphology thus becomes a key determinant in generating the morphology of SCMs [14]. This would suggest that, if particles with controlled morphology could be made, then control of the SCM morphology would follow. There are a number of issues that complicate this relationship. The first is that at high temperatures the catalyst may be in the liquid phase; indeed, the melting point of a metal decreases with size, and metals in the nano regime will melt at much lower temperatures than those of bulk metal. Impurity atoms may also lead to the formation of eutectics, which may also lower the melting point of a metal (sulfur is believed to do this to Fe [15]) leading to liquid metals. Finally, it has been observed that the carbon reactant can modify the surface of the catalyst particle to generate new particle shapes during a reaction [7]. This process is driven by energy minimization issues through the formation of metal–carbon bonds. Thus, as a result of this in situ modification of a catalyst by the reactant, making supported or unsupported catalysts with a known shape does not always lead to the expected SCM. The use of organometallic complexes may provide a means of making gas-phase clusters with some control over catalyst morphology (size/shape) that will lead to the controlled shape of the nano carbon material produced. As yet, this issue has not been evaluated.
Most mechanistic information on carbon growth has been derived for solid or liquid metal particles, generated at T > 500
◦ C. In these mechanisms, a metal particle interacts with gas-phase carbon-containing reactants. These reactants (as molecules/ions/fragments) interact with the metal surface and decompose into carbon atoms. It is generally believed that the carbon then dissolves into the metal, and after supersaturation within the metal, carbon crystallization and formation of carbon tubes or fibers then takes place. This can occur via a base growth or tip growth process, as shown in Fig. 33.6. Simultaneously, the dissolved carbon can cause catalyst breakdown, leading to the phenomenon of “dusting” [16]. An alternative to the above involves breakdown of the carbon reactants on the surface of the metal particle (or near surface; first one to two layers) without dissolution into the metal. The mobile carbon atoms then form C–C bonds, which leads to the formation of tubes/fibers [17]. The various studies reported to date suggest that both mechanisms are operative and are metal–reactant–reaction parameter dependent. This metal–reactant–reaction parameter relationship is significant in a gas-phase reaction, as it helps control the resulting carbon shapes. At T < 400 ◦ C, alternative pathways could occur and these may involve a more typical mechanism based on organometallic principles. Our own studies using Cu or Ni as catalyst and using nontraditional carbon reactants have suggested that the carbon materials formed are dependent on the carbon reactant used. Thus, different alkene (or alkyne) isomers that would be expected to give the same carbon structures, if the carbon reactant decomposed completely on the catalyst, are found to give carbons with different morphologies [7]. A mechanism involving complete breakdown of the carbon reactant to C atoms is not consistent with the results. This suggests that the reactant (or fragments) interacts with the metal surface and creates new C–C bonds that generate the carbon materials produced. ORGANOMETALLIC CATALYSTS AND CARBON SYNTHESIS 449 (a)
(b) Figure 33.6 CNT (or CNF) growth from a catalyst (gold sphere) particle initially deposited on a support showing (a) base growth and (b) tip growth [11]. Reprinted from Reference 11b. Copyright 2011, with permission from ScholarOne Manuscripts. The different carbon sources also readily facilitate catalyst reconstruction, again suggesting reactant–metal complex formation. If different faces on the catalyst are generated from the different carbon sources, then different SCMs can be formed.
In low temperature studies (circa 450 ◦ C) over a Ni catalyst, carbon fibers that formed varied with the alkene or alkyne reactant used. The carbon fiber formed was highly amorphous, suggesting the presence of substantial amounts of sp 3 carbons. Thus, the C–C bond-forming reactions occurring on the surface generate a 3D structure. This is different to polymerization reactions that generate 1D strands of carbon atoms [18]. A proposed mechanism, in cartoon form, to indicate the steps required to make carbon tubes/fibers is shown in Fig. 33.7 [7]. This mechanism highlights (i) the possibility of reactant breakdown in the gas phase, (ii) the interaction of either the reactant (pathway i) or reactant fragments (pathway ii) with the catalyst particle, and (iii) the C–C bond-forming steps on the catalyst surface. However, little is known about (iii) above. An understanding of these processes of C–C bond formation on the metal catalyst will allow eventual control of the morphology (shape/size) of the carbon materials produced. The implication in a mechanism of this type is that the interaction of the metal with carbon species should involve typical organometallic carbon-metal interactions, leading to the 3D carbon structures formed in the reaction.
Organometallic complexes can create the catalysts for making carbons by two generic routes. One is to use the organometallic complex to generate a solid nonvolatile material, which is an alternative to the traditional means of making solid catalysts from metal salts. The second method is to use a volatile metal complex that will make metal particles in the gas phase (as mentioned above). In this process, the organometallic complex will decompose in the gas phase, and the metal atoms then nucleate and react with the carbon source to make the carbon material. These metal atoms/clusters can deposit on the reactor walls before reaction with carbon and then a traditional carbon growth pattern will occur. Little is known as to the ratio of carbon products produced by these two competing pathways (i.e., from metal atoms in the gas phase or from metal atoms on the reactor wall) when “floating” organometallic catalysts are used. As in most studies MWCNTs are produced, typically with internal diameters greater than 5 nm, it appears that most growth (after any initial reaction in the gas phase) occurs on the reactor walls. The production of SWCNTs with smaller diameters (1–2 nm), by contrast, could result from metal particles spending more time in the gas phase before deposition on a reactor surface. From an organometallic perspective, the key issue will be the control of the growth of the metal particle (size, shape, content), irrespective of the pathway, to produce a carbon material with shape. The deposited metal clusters on the reactor walls should be different from the metal atoms/clusters produced from metal salts by reduction and hence could lead to novel structures. It has been proposed that floating catalysts could add to the tips of growing CNTs (Fig. 33.8) [19]. This could provide an alternative mechanism to explain the presence of metal particles that appear inside a growing tube. However, the sizes 450 THE ROLE OF ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES IN THE SYNTHESIS OF SHAPED CARBON MATERIALS Carbon source dissociates in the gas phase into C
n (n ≥ 1) fragments (i) Carbon source interacts with catalyst surface
(ii) Carbon source dissociates into fragments (C 2
3 , C
4 etc.), entering the gas phase (iii) Fragments can adsorb back onto catalyst surface (iv) Growth via adsorbed C n (n ≥ 1) fragments (v) Growth via dissolution of C 1 species
Support Metal
Carbon precursor Carbon fiber/tube Figure 33.7 Proposed mechanism for CNT/F growth via carbon fragments. (i) Carbon source adsorbs onto the surface of the catalyst particle. (ii) Carbon source fragments on the catalyst and is released into the gas phase, or (iii) gas-phase fragments are readsorbed onto the catalyst surface. (iv) Growth of CNT/F from adsorbed carbon fragments. (v) Base growth mechanism as proposed by Baker [7]. Reprinted from Reference 7b. Copyright 2012, with permission from Elsevier. (a)
(b) Ar Fe Quartz First
Second Third
Open Ends
Figure 33.8 A schematic model of the formation of uniformly distributed catalyst lines during the growth of nanotubes arrays [18]. Reprinted from Reference 19. Copyright 2001, with permission from American Chemical Society. of the particles found seem inconsistent with the concentration of gas-phase metals used in the reaction, suggesting that this mechanism does not occur. A range of studies, in which organometallic complexes have been used to make SCMs, are listed below. The types of structures produced have been divided up into sections as follows: (i) CNTs and CNFs, (ii) aligned and nonaligned carbons, (iii) branched structures, (iv) bamboo carbons, (v) coiled carbons, (vi) amorphous carbons, (vii) spherical carbons, and (viii) ORGANOMETALLIC CATALYSTS AND CARBON SYNTHESIS 451 TABLE 33.1 Different Carbon Shapes Made from Ferrocene and Fe(CO) 5 Carbon Shape Catalyst
◦ C Gases Other Reactants Methods References Tubular FcH
400–650 Ar Toluene CVD 20d
Tubular FcH
580–700 H 2 Anthracene/dibromoanthracene CVD
21b Bamboo
FcH 850
Ar/H 2 Toluene/benzylamine Aerosol 22a
Bamboo FcH
720–840 Ar PPh 3 /benzylamine Aerosol 23c,d
Bamboo FcH
900 Ar/H
2 Toluene/aniline/ferrocenylaniline CVD 22c
CNFs FcH
1150 H 2 Thiophene, benzene Aerosol
24b Aligned CNTs FcH 400–900
C 2 H 2 Xylene
CVD 21g
Aligned CNTs FcH
<600 Benzene
CVD 21h
aC and CSs FcH
700–900 Anthracene CVD 21a
HCSs FcH
700 N 2 autoclave 25c
HCSs FcH
900–1000 N 2 Benzene CVD
25a CSs
FcH 580–700
H 2 Anthracene CVD 21b
CSs Fe(CO)
5 700–1000
N 2 Pentane Pyrolysis 26 Filled CSs FcH 1000
Ar Camphor
CVD 25b
a-CNTs and nanobags FcH
200 Cl 2 CVD 27c
Y- or T-Junctions FcH
1000 Ar/H
2 Thiophene CVD 28
FcH or Fe 3 (CO) 12 900
Ar CVD
29c Nanocoils FcH 700
C 2 H 2 Xylene, indium isopropoxide Double-stage CVD 30b
Nanocoils Fe(CO)
5 700–800
Pyridine Toluene
CVD 21b
Helical FcH
700 Polyethylene glycol Autoclave 30c
Helical FcH
700 C 2 H 2 Xylene–indium isopropoxide Double-stage CVD 30d
SWCNTs FcH or Fe(CO) 5 1100
N 2 or CO CO Laminar flow reactor 31a MWCNTs
FcH 850
Ar Castor oil CVD 32
Fe(CO) 5 1050–1150 N 2 CH 4 CVD
33b MWCNTs
Fe(CO) 5 2600 Ar C 2 H 2 CVD 33c C 8 H 8 Fe(CO) 3 , MWCNTs [(C 5 H 5 )Fe(CO)
2 ] 2 Ar Toluene
Injection CVD 33d
MWCNTs Fe(CO)
5 , Fe
3 (CO)
12 Ar C 2 H 2 Aerosol 33e
Fe/Fe carbide core/ carbon shell NPs Fe(CO) 5
Ar C 2 H 2 , C 2 H 4 Laser pyrolysis 34a
Carbon-coated Fe NPs Fe(CO)
5 <710 mbar Ar C 2 H 2 , C 2 H 4 CVD
34b Abbreviations: aC, amorphous carbon; CNTs, carbon nanotubes; CNFs, carbon nanofibers; CVD, chemical vapor deposition; CSs, carbon spheres; FcH, ferrocene; HCSs, hollow carbon spheres; NPs, nanoparticles. other shapes. The information in Table 33.1 provides a few examples from the literature relating to these different shapes. The examples, by no means covering all studies or carbon shapes produced, indicates the range of control possible using organometallic complexes. Further, the role of doping has not been treated separately, and examples of the effect of doping have been integrated into the sections listed above. 33.6.1 CNTs and CNFs Carbons that grow with a linear or near-linear shape from a catalyst particle are referred to as CNTs or CNFs. The CNTs can be SWCNTs or MWCNTs, and these grow with their carbon layers parallel to the tube axis. CNFs, by contrast, have carbon layers perpendicular (or near perpendicular) to the fiber axis and can be hollow or solid. CNTs and CNFs have diameters ranging from 2 nm to greater than 100 nm and lengths varying from 20 nm to several centimeters. These tubes can be further classified as aligned or “cooked spaghetti” shaped (Fig. 33.9). The various morphologies taken by the carbons are determined during the synthesis process. This is affected by the type of organometallic catalyst used. There is an extensive literature that reports on the production of tubes and fibers using different routes, synthetic conditions, carbon sources, and catalysts. Tibbetts and Gorkiewicz [20a] appear to have been the first researchers to use an organometallic complex, FcH, to produce CNFs and CNTs. Thermal decomposition of FcH alone resulted in the formation of SWCNTs [20]. Also, Barreiro et al. [20] used FcH as the sole source of both catalytic Fe particles and C feedstock which nucleated from the C species to form SWCNTs. As highlighted earlier, most tubular nanocarbons made in the gas phase are produced 452 THE ROLE OF ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES IN THE SYNTHESIS OF SHAPED CARBON MATERIALS (a) (b)
Figure 33.9 SEM images showing (a) aligned CNFs and (b) “cooked spaghetti type” CNFs [7]. Reprinted from Reference 11b. Copyright 2011, with permission from ScholarOne Manuscripts. by the conventional catalytic CVD method from a carbon feedstock (aliphatic, aromatic hydrocarbon, CO, etc.) using a volatile metallic species [20]. Some examples are given in Table 33.1 to give an indication of the carbon materials produced, and we describe some specific examples below. SWCNTs, MWCNTs, and CNFs have been synthesized by a floating catalyst method with different tube diameters achieved by controlling the FcH/benzene mole ratio. It is evident that small FcH/C ratios yield SWCNTs, and higher ratios CNFs [35]. SWCNTs were synthesized by the CO disproportionation reaction on Fe catalyst particles formed by FcH vapor decomposition in a laminar flow aerosol (floating catalyst) reactor [31]. A mixture of CH 4 /H
/Ar with added Fe(CO) 5 was reacted in the presence of a microwave plasma torch for the synthesis of MWCNTs covered by iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) [33]. Horvath and coworkers [36] have studied the efficiency of bimetallic catalyst particles by investigating FcH–cobaltocene and FcH–nickelocene mixtures against a FcH standard. Their findings show that FcH–cobaltocene and FcH–nickelocene mixtures increased CNT production compared to a standard FcH catalyst. The highest yields were obtained using the FcH–nickelocene mixture. The samples containing mainly straight nanotubes and negligible amounts of amorphous carbon imply that these bimetallic catalysts also improved the quality and purity of the nanotube samples. Mohlala et al. [36] utilized a bimetallic catalyst system [FcH/W(CO) 5 (t-BuNC) and FcH/W(CO) 5 (t-BuNC)] to synthesize MWCNTs in 5% H 2 in Ar in the temperature range 700–900 ◦ C. TEM analysis revealed the formation of large metal particles of Mo/Fe alloys rich in Fe. Under similar reaction conditions, FcH yielded MWCNTs and spheres while the W(CO)
5 (t-BuNC) complex yielded little carbonaceous material. It was observed that the diameters of the CNTs formed in the presence of FcH are smaller, while the diameters of CSs are larger relative to the diameters of CNTs and spheres produced by the bimetallic catalyst systems. CNTs can also be made using natural precursors. For example, castor oil was the carbon source used in the spray pyrolysis synthesis of CNTs from a castor oil–FcH solution at 850 ◦ C under an Ar atmosphere [32]. Fibers with diameters of 10–100 nm were produced by the floating catalyst method, using S additives. The temperature of the feedstock and the hydrogen flow had the expected effects on the growth of CNFs [24]. Thinner and straighter nanofibers were produced at low temperature. In the production of vapor-grown carbon fibers, ultrafine iron catalyst particles played an important role in the elongation process of the fibers. The activity of the catalyst particles were found to depend strongly on their size. This helped in the prediction of the size distribution of particles produced under various reaction conditions [24].
As highlighted earlier during the discussion on the synthesis of CNTs and CNFs, it is possible to generate both aligned and “cooked spaghetti” type materials (Fig. 33.9). For device manufacture, the former geometry will be required. It is likely that the aligned CNTs/CNFs are formed through the deposition of the metal from a floating catalyst on the reactor walls. ORGANOMETALLIC CATALYSTS AND CARBON SYNTHESIS 453 Well-aligned SWCNTs and MWCNTs can be obtained via the pyrolysis of a FcH/anthracene powered mixture, while both SWCNTs and spherical carbon-coated iron NPs can be obtained from powdered mixtures of FcH and dibromoanthracene [21]. A benzene/FcH mixture was used to obtain vertically aligned CNTs when the preheating temperature was set at 400 ◦ C
◦ C [21]. High purity aligned MWCNTs that grow perpendicular to the quartz substrates were also synthesized through the catalytic decomposition of a FcH–xylene mixture [21]. Vertically oriented and thin nanotubes were grown by plasma- and filament-assisted CVD [21]. 33.6.3 Branched Carbons Branched structures are typically composed of several arms of tubes and fibers that form when non-hexagonal carbon rings are incorporated into the tube framework of the graphene sheet that builds the carbon nanostructure. Branched nanostructures formed from FcH can be either Y-branched (Fig. 33.10) or T-branched. Different growth techniques have been used for their fabrication in the temperature range of 650–1000 ◦ C [28] using a range of reactors, namely, CVD, double-stage furnace CVD, a closed environment (e.g., an autoclave or sealed quartz container reactors), etc. The addition of sulfur compounds to the floating catalyst appears to enhance Y-junction growth. Y-Junctions or Y-branches have been made at high temperatures using FcH with thiophene as an additive in an Ar/H 2 mixture [37]. Y-Junctions have also been produced in large quantities by the gas-phase decomposition of a FcH/thiophene mixture in a hydrogen atmosphere [37]. Further decomposition of Fe(CO) 5 with thiophene yields multiple Y-junction structures [38]. Y-Junctions that are bamboo shaped have been observed and are produced through the pyrolysis of FcH/monoethanolamine mixture over a GaAs substrate at 950 ◦ C [8, 37]. 33.6.4 Bamboo Structures The incorporation of heteroatoms or other foreign atoms into a CNT modifies the tube characteristics. TEM and SEM studies reveal that nitrogen-containing CNTs are hollow inside and typically have bamboo compartments. Doping of the CNT lattice (particularly with N) has been found to give these bamboo structures. This is partly due to the formation of pentagons and heptagons, which increases the reactivity of the neighboring carbon atoms resulting in the formation of a highly disordered structure. Bamboo shapes are also referred to as having a “bell” shape, as the shape resembles a series of bells connected to each other (Fig. 33.11). This unique morphology can also be due to the addition of nitrogen, for example, NH 3 in the presence of FcH. The N found in N-doped CNTs can be present as a pyridinic or pyrrolic N, readily differentiated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 0.2
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