Class Struggle and This Thing Named
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- HYDRO-JIHAD: Water Conflict and the Class Struggle The Early Domestication of Water
- Commodification of water
- European salt mapper Smos spying on thirsty camels
- Water conflicts within Middle East/N. Africa region There are five major disputes over water in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
- Rivers (Turkey, Syria, and Iraq); the Jordan River (Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan and
Omar Khayyam “HYDRO-JIHAD: Water Conflict and the Class Struggle” was originally written in 2003 as an extended leaflet which is why it doesn’t cite full references. The Iraq War underlined the significance of three key commodities in the Middle East: labour power, energy and water. This text investigates the role of water in relation to the class struggle. It briefly demonstrates how water became first commodified and then a tool for repression and control. We do not need the forewarning of hydrologists to know that water will increasingly emerge as a contributing factor in armed conflict between nation-states under capitalism and perhaps even between rural and urban regions of the same country. This latest version of the leaflet has been updated and substantially expanded in order to reflect a growing body of research on the topic of water conflicts. In keeping with the original style of the text we decided not to include references, although our debt to experts in this field is freely acknowledged. We focus on five areas of dispute on the Middle East but some of the conclusions could be generalised more widely. 50 Drink up, Brian, Apas will rejuvenate your life-force! HYDRO-JIHAD: Water Conflict and the Class Struggle The Early Domestication of Water he earliest examples of water worship date from the period 6000 - 4000 BC. The druids offered the water goddess libations in the vain hope of arresting the Roman advance. In Wales, water was drunk from human skulls in order to acquire the desirable qualities of the skull’s original owner. Persians personified the water as Apas and prayed to them in order to rejuvenate the life-force the goddesses had invested in nature. The invention of qanats (sloped water canals), sometime between the tenth and eighth centuries BC in Persia, witnessed the birth of a hereditary class of professionals responsible for excavating and maintaining them. The Achaemenid Shahs “actively encouraged the construction of qanats by granting the profits for five generations to the people who dug them” (Dale R. Lightfoot). Some of the pre-Islamic rain-making ceremonies developed in Iran, Turkey and the Arabian Peninsula over the centuries are remarkably reminiscent of the village ritual enacted in The Wicker Man (Dir. Robin Hardy, 1973; also see Ilhan Basgöz). At least five of the Mithraic (Persian ‘mystico-pagan’ religion imported into the ‘West’ during Roman times) temples discovered in Britain were built close to streams or over springs. The very earliest Hindu, Egyptian and Roman legal codes were based on the assumption that a leader would protect water supplies in return for people’s obedience (Alexander Bell). Around 500 BC, the Chinese became the first to understand the ‘water cycle’ (sea evaporation cloud formation surface water). It was also the Chinese who set up the first flood-warning system in 1574 on the Yellow River, using “horseback riders who travelled faster than the water” (Alain Gioda). Today Europe and USA have a satellite each in orbit tasked with mapping salinity of oceans and understating the movement of freshwater around the planet- data that will no doubt be used to further commodify water. Some societies were so dependent on water, that the determinist historian Wittfogel coined the term ‘water civilizations’ to describe them. Egypt, Assyria and the Kingdom of Saba’ are clear examples. The latter’s fall was symbolized by the destruction of the only dam around Ma’rib (approx. 300 AD). Some Old Testament scholars are of the firm opinion that “King David was able to take Jerusalem by using the city’s underground conduits, which supplied water from the spring of Gihon” (Alain Gioda). After the fall of Rome (410 AD) and then T 51 Constantinople (1453 AD), the Arabs and the Persians refined the tradition of fountains, water sports and hot baths. Persian qanats were brought to Spain by Muslim conquerors during the 8 th century. In turn, Spanish conquerors took their qanat engineering skills to the Canary Islands, Peru, Chile and Mexico. This enabled them to incorporate most of the land under their influence into wheat farms and cattle ranches. At the beginning of the 7 th century AD Pope Gregory acknowledged the obduracy of paganism by recommending their temples be converted to Christian use, instead of the previous policy of ruination. The well water was adopted for the Christian rites of baptism and hand-washing. The transition became allegorized in the stories of saints battling with giants, monsters and demons. Da Vinci and Machiavelli were very clear about the importance of water. In a failed plot they tried to divert the course of the Arno River away from Florence’s enemy, the city-state of Pisa, and to the sea through a series of navigable canals that would immensely benefit Florentine commerce and security (Adam Garfinkle). By the time of the Reformation (16 th century), the Church was strong enough to try strong- arm tactics once more. Some well chapels were demolished, pilgrimages prohibited and offenders chastised. The ‘lower’ classes attracted to ‘holy’ wells turned the ritual into Bacchus orgies, not unlike original football festivals. The spa culture was in many ways a bourgeois response to plebeian carnivalesque. But “it was not until the eighteenth and, even more so, the nineteenth century, with the rediscovery of the body and the health cult, that the popularity of spas reached its height” (Gioda). Gradually the magical holy wells transmuted into devotionless ‘wishing wells’, and by the late 19 th century, ‘cursing wells’ played an important role in identifying criminals. The ‘wet Northern’ countries of Britain, Germany, France and the Netherlands spend a great deal of energy and resources on improving rivers and draining land during the early phase of their industrial and agricultural development in the 18 th and 19 th centuries (Alexander Bell). Their water-richness allowed them the luxury of planning ahead, whilst water-thirsty countries were too busy surviving to forge a strategy for development. What is vital to appreciate here is this: for centuries the domestication of water went hand in hand with its statification and also with its veneration. Sometimes this was due to a push from below when, for instance, peasant and plebeian groupings would demand better water supplies and sanitation. In these cases, the improvements were not usually associated with alienation. However, at other times the domestication of water was a prelude for the 52 disciplining of the lower classes. These attacks were perceived by people as ‘unnatural’ and catalysed the process of alienation from Nature. With the advent of generalised commodity exchange under capitalism, the process of transforming inanimate objects into ‘things’ with magical qualities separate from humans, was intensified. Commodity fetishism took centre stage. Commodification of water Water enjoys an unrivalled position in nature’s domain, precisely because “it symbolizes the whole of potentiality; it is fons et origo, the source of all possible existence” (Mircea Eliade). So much so that even “under Roman law flowing water was considered to be public property, which meant that rivers and their branches could not be commercialized. The political and military power of the feudal system was limited by rural communities for which water, by virtue of being continually renewed, was a public property and could not be appropriated by feudal rights” (Gioda). Under capital, life becomes survival, and water, a vital regulator of political economy. “Enclosures”, as some autonomist Marxists have correctly observed, “are not a onetime process exhausted at the dawn of capitalism. They are a regular return on the path of accumulation and a structural component of the class struggle” (Midnight Notes). Water deposits determine the boundaries of enclosures, separating thirsty proletarians from podgy masters. The resultant phony water shortage becomes harnessed to a siege mentality- an essential strategy for smothering dissent. Water economists have employed Sraffa’s distinction between ‘basic’ versus ‘non-basic’ commodities lately. Basic commodities enter into the production of all commodities, while non-basics do not. Energy commodities (water included) are basic commodities. In certain transitional periods, it is claimed, only with price changes of the energy commodities can the average real wage be reduced. The new fangled concept of ‘virtual water’ (John Anthony Allan) is one such attempt to increase the profitability of water. It refers to the water embedded in water-intensive commodities such as cereals. It is argued that the economies that import cereals are getting a subsidized bargain and should be grateful for this ‘western’ generosity. Higher industries suck up the surplus value produced at the bottom of the system through this price structure, and in the process dictate the rhythm and extent of lower forms of surplus value extraction. The Israeli hi- tech industry not only guarantees Israel’s military pre-eminence over her neighbours, but just as 53 crucially it catalyses agriculture’s passage from absolute to relative surplus value extraction for Jewish farmers, through constant technological upgrading. Arab farmers, by contrast, are forced to rely on the less productive methods of extending the working day, and working harder in order to compensate for their lack of technology. The military and economic superiority of the state of Israel can also be harnessed to constrain rival states at the level of the formal domination of capital. As we try to demonstrate later, the control of water supplies becomes a vital method of upholding this superiority. Marx correctly observed that, “it is not the absolute fertility of the soil, but its degree of differentiation, the variety of its natural products, which forms the natural basis for the social division of labour.” He also noted that in ancient societies such as Egypt, Lombardy, Holland, India, and Persia, “artificial canals do not only supply the soil with the water indispensable to it, but also carry down mineral fertilizers from the hills, in the shape of sediments. The secret of the flourishing state of industry in Spain and Sicily under the rule of the Arabs lay in their irrigation works.” Significantly, in the Middle East, the problem is not only the total volume of water but the high evaporation rate, which ‘devalues’ water as commodity. Commodification as policing Capital commodifies water by making use-value into exchange-value. Obviously, “something cannot be a commodity unless someone lacks it.” Commodification is practiced whether shortage is caused ‘naturally’ or artificially. The U.N. sponsored Rio earth summit of 1992, where hydro-economists agreed to treat water as a commodity, capable of being traded, was a formal recognition of this phenomenon. Today a particularly pernicious alliance between some 54 European 'salt mapper' Smos spying on thirsty camels Righty-ho! We’ve mapped the Evian camel. As soon as we find the butt-scratching monkey we can go home! World Bank bureaucrats and some sections of the environmentalist ‘movement’ is calling for the stricter commodification of water as the only way of preventing ‘wastage.’ The commodification of water, the alienation of peasants from land (through territorial acquisition of, say, fellaheen Arabs by Israel or the general capitalist invasion of the countryside by the metropole), and the sedentarization of nomadic population (as seen in Jordan and Iran) must, therefore, be viewed as strategic elements of the same violation. The current attempt by Israel to ethnically cleanse the Negev desert from Bedouin Arabs in preparation for the next wave of Jewish settlers is part of this ‘civilizing’ strategy. In 1963 Moshe Dayan was quite explicit on this, “We should transform the bedouin into an urban proletariat. This will be a radical move, which means that the bedouin would not live on this land with his herds, but would become an urban person who comes home in the afternoon and puts his slippers on. The children would go to school with their hair properly combed” (Chris Mc Greal). To pressure the bedouin off the land, water (as well as electricity, roads and welfare programmes) are withheld from them. The data collected about aquifers and water distribution is treated as state secrets, giving more ‘advanced’ countries such as Israel and Turkey a scientific advantage over their neighbours. Satellite technology will only exacerbate this divide. The inapplicability of international water laws to arid countries also works to the advantage of the militarily superior powers as it allows them to use water as a bargaining chip. In fact, some believe the ‘international community’ does not want international water law at the present time (Tony Allan). Commodified water becomes an agent of policing hierarchies: national as well as social. “One of the material foundations of the power of the state over the small and unconnected producing organisms of India”, writes Marx, “was the regulation of the water supply. Its Mohammedan rulers understood this better than their English successors. It is sufficient to recall the famine of 1866, which cost the lives of more than a million Hindus in the district of Orissa, in the Bengal Presidency”. 55 Water conflicts within Middle East/N. Africa region There are five major disputes over water in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region: control of the Karun or Shatt-al-Arab River (Iran and Iraq); Euphrates and Tigris Rivers (Turkey, Syria, and Iraq); the Jordan River (Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine); the coastal and mountain aquifers (Israel and Palestine); and the Nile River (Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan). Let us look more closely at some of these points of tension. Lebanon Technologically superior countries and those perched upstream hold a decided advantage over technologically backward and water-hungry downstream neighbours. For example, Israel’s annexation of the Golan Heights extended her water reserves to the Banias tributary, and since the 1982 invasion of Lebanon, Israel has maintained effective control over the Hasbani tributary. In so doing Israel has fulfilled Chaim Weizmann’s dream of extending her northern border to the Litani river. During the siege of Beirut (1982) a small Israeli engineering unit “turned the wheel that closed the valve controlling the supply to west Beirut; then they removed the wheel and took it with them.” The PLO resistance faltered soon after. Some analysts believe “water itself has been a relatively minor factor in most Israeli land acquisition, 56 but the result of the acquisition of land has been to exacerbate the gap between [Arab] and Israeli water use” (James Hudson). Lebanon is also subjected to Syrian ‘Water Imperialism.’ The 1991 treaty of friendship between the two countries includes a “secret clause ensuring that Syrian forces would guard and if necessary defend the source of river Yarmouk, which rises in Lebanon before flowing into Syria” (Jad Isaac). To underscore the point, it should be remembered how the Israel-Syria talks became stalled, at least in part, over the question of Syrian access to the eastern shore of Lake Tiberius. Ever since Israel’s decision to back out of its water obligations under various agreements to Jordan and Palestine has led to one crisis after another. Egypt Herodotus, who visited Egypt about 450-440 BCE wrote, “The Nile is the Gift of Osiris, but Egypt is the gift of the Nile.” Almost 97 percent of all the water drawn in Egypt (whether for agriculture or municipal and domestic consumption) is from the Nile (Ismail Serageldin), a river whose flow and tributaries are controlled by 8 other countries. At Camp David in 1978, Sadat offered to divert 1 per cent of “Osiris’s gift” to irrigate the Negev Dessert of Israel, in return for Arab land. Some sections of the Egyptian ruling class were content with this arrangement but Mukhaberat (the Egyptian Intelligence Services) leaked the details, in an attempt to bring down Sadat. Although the coup failed, the ensuing anti-Sadat media campaign created a hostile climate, culminating in his assassination in 1981 by the Jihad group. Israel’s construction of new dams in Ethiopia, which would inevitably diminish the Nile’s volume, is economic blackmail in all but name. What Israel and Syria do to Lebanon and Jordan through their military superiority, Turkey (an upstream riparian) does to Syria and Iraq, by virtue of geographic ascendancy. As Sudan and Ethiopia begin demanding more water from the Nile to meet growing developmental needs, Egypt’s water-scarcity becomes increasingly precarious. The nationalist/supra-nationalist tension intrinsic to capitalism, finds an echo in the two strategies proposed for water management: the integrationist faction (as represented for instance by the World Bank), who following Churchill’s original concept, seek to create hydro-political units in the Middle East; and the separatist wing who are happy exploiting the dynamics of present boundaries. Both wings of the ruling class are, however, united on the use of water as a weapon in the class struggle against the proletariat. One innovative bourgeois attempt for addressing shortage in arid regions has been to purchase land for agriculture in water-rich So undignified. At least they can let us wear swim suits! Ah, shut up! I like going commando! 57 countries and then export the product to themselves (Ismail Serageldin). Saudi Arabia, for instance, now owns upwards of one million hectares of land in countries ranging from Tanzania to Indonesia as part of such a scheme. Iraq In 2009 the Iraqi bourgeoisie threatened to block all agreement with Turkey unless “their country is given a more equitable share of the available water supply,” a shrewder reaction compared to Saddam era ‘diplomacy’ when Iraq threatened to bomb the Atatürk Dam (Joost Jongerden). Farmers in Iraq’s south face particular difficulties in growing their products, driving many to immigrate to urban areas. In a parallel internal manoeuvre, the Saddam River (a 565 Km waterway between Baghdad and Basra) is ostensibly designed to reclaim polluted land, but more significantly the project aimed to dislodge the Marsh Arabs, dissidents and deserters who fled there after the abortive uprising of 1991. This is a dual political and ‘civilizing’ project which aims to annihilate a way of life and turn self-sufficient marginals into wage-slaves. The Israeli state has been employing a similar strategy for uprooting Arabs from their lands, since at least 1951. A related ploy is to increase the salinity of downstream water to such an extent that irrigation becomes impossible. Surplus peasants are forced to leave the land and migrate. Whilst Israel has deployed such tactics with subtlety against Palestinians, the Iraqi orgy of destruction during their retreat from Kuwait included a ‘scourge water’ policy, when desalination plants were damaged beyond repair. Bordiga once pointed out with regard to the floods at Po valley, “Capital has become incapable of the social function of transmitting the labour of past generations to the future ones ... It does not want maintenance contracts, but huge building deals; to enable this, huge natural cataclysms are insufficient - capital creates human ones with ineluctable necessity, and makes post-war reconstruction ‘the business deal of the century.’” Although Bordiga’s comment should not be over-generalized, it does seem to be an accurate description of so much of the ‘reconstruction’ projects being pursued in the Middle East today. Download 64.9 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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