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- See Chapter 4, p. 151.
- 401 Kayipov, Sulayman. Jilga bergis jarim ktin (A Half Day Which Cannot be Exchanged for a Year). Bishkek, 2006.
- The standard 19th century English translation by Edward Fitzgerald is as follows: “Into this Universe, and Why not knowing
- And out o f it, as Wind along the Waste, I know not Whither, willy-nilly blowing.” {The Rubaiyat o f Omar Khayam
348 Summary The findings of this dissertation work are mainly based on the eighteen months of ethnographic research that I conducted in my hometown KMl-Jar (formerly known as KMl-Jar sovkhoz, state farm) during the years 2002-2003. However, as a native scholar and representative of Kyrgyz [nomadic] society and culture, I also made use of my knowledge and personal experiences acquired in my early childhood and youth. As I have noted, I grew up in a family of nomadid herders and interacted with both sides of my parents’ tribesmen (Ogotur and Aginay) who have practiced pastoral nomadism for many centuries. My unique and rich childhood experience of nomadic life and culture played an important role in forming of my identity. This close attachment to Kyrgyz traditional values, customs, and the art of oral creativity is definitely reflected in my scholarly approach to and treatment of Kyrgyz nomadic heritage and its significance in the formation of Kyrgyz national identity and the future development of ideology as an independent nation state. My thesis deals with three major issues, which have current significance in contemporary Central Asia: Kyrgyz (and Kazakh) nomadic customs, Islamic revival, and the emergence of a new national ideology, Tengirchilik. Scholars have made general comparative studies of historical nomadic-sedentary interaction between various Turco-Mongol tribal confederations and sedentary societies such as Chinina Persia, and Russia. However, they have paied less attention to this interaction’s legacy in shaping modem ethnic/national identities and ethno-cultural boundaries. Therefore, as a classical example of nomad-sedentary interaction in Central Asia, I chose to examine the dynamics of identity formation between the two ethnic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 49 groups, the formerly nomadic Kyrgyz and the sedentary Uzbeks. In order to understand what it means to be a Kyrgyz for the Kyrgyz and Uzbek for the Uzbeks, it was important to put the issue in historical context of nomadic-sedentary interaction. Instead of dismissing some of the popular socio-cultural stereotypes created by the nomadic Kyrgyz (and Kazakhs) about the sedentary Uzbeks, historically known as Sarts, I tried to examine the dynamics of their identity formation and conditions that created those ethno-cultural boundaries. One of the best examples, which tell us about the formation of early nomadic identity as opposed to the sedentary identity, is the 8th century Kultegin Inscription left by the nomadic Turks themselves. As the earliest native written source, the Inscription contains very interesting and valuable material about the Turkic and Chinese interaction and the native worldview of the Turkic peoples, including the Kyrgyz, before the adoption and influence of other religions such as Islam. Almost all the cultural distinctions between the two groups—such as Kyrgyz tribal identity vs. Uzbeks regional identity, Kyrgyz character or mentality vs. that of the Uzbeks, food and hospitality, women’s roles and different degrees of Islamic practice— grew out of ecological boundaries or “structural oppositions.” A number of popular sayings among the Kyrgyz (and Kazakhs) about the Uzbeks’ (Sarts’) mentality, character, and hospitality contain interesting and valuable information that helps us to understand what kind of human virtues and religious beliefs were valued in Central Asian nomadic society and why. The islamization of Central Asian nomadic peoples did not occur in one century; it was a long, gradual process. It was mainly Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam, which was welcomed in Central Asia, especially by the nomadic Kyrgyz and Kazakhs. One of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
350 the reasons that Sufism was quite popular is that it was tolerant of the local un-Islamic beliefs and practices. Central Asians developed a distinct form of musulmanchilik, or Muslimness by assimilating some of the main Islamic and Sufi beliefs and practices with their pre-Islamic worldview. The latter, which, until very recently, had been incorrectly called “shamanism,” seems to have found a new and proper name, Tengirchilik, coined by Central Asian native scholars and intellectuals. The coexistence of Islamic/Sufi and
Kazakhs and Kyrgyz “nominal Muslims.” The Kazakhs and Kyrgyz are not likely to be offended if they are called nominal Muslims, for they are themselves aware of the fact that they do not observe Islam as strictly as in other Muslim countries. Some of the common Islamic practices can be seen at those “formal” rituals and ceremonies such as rites of passage, (e.g., circumcision, marriage, funeral rites, etc.). In Islamic culture, the person should be buried within twenty-four hours after his/her death, but the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz do not obey this rule. They at least keep the body one day, in some cases for two days until close family members arrive. Also, sharia forbids the slaughtering of any animal for a funeral, but among the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz this rule is totally ignored. It is mandatory to slaughter a horse at a funeral among the Kazakh and Kyrgyz, whereas the Uzbeks do not kill any animal and bury their deceased within twenty four hours. Such “violations” of Islamic sharia can be explained by the earlier stated theory, i.e., that the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz did not adopt Islam as it was, but “filtered new, external elements through their own cultural norms and aspirations.”398 In other words, many “suitable” Islamic practices, which did not contradict with their local traditional values, were easily 398
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 351 adopted and practiced. The Kyrgyz and Kazakh “nomadic mentality” cannot obey the dogmatic or strict religious rules that orthodox Islam requires from its sedentary believers. The historical nomadic life and nomad-sedentary interaction are gone, but their legacies continue to influence the everyday interaction between the modem Kyrgyz and Uzbek societies. The reason for that, as the advocates of Tengirchilik also point out, is their pre-Islamic worldview and values that “have deeply penetrated into the blood” of the Kazaks and Kyrgyz, who turned their religious beliefs and values into their lifestyle. As the Kyrgyz intellectuals themselves admit, they are not inventing a new religion, which they call Tengirchilik, but, as educators and intellectuals, are reminding their people of their past heritage. Or as the title of one of Dastan Sarigulov’s small publications states, intellectuals believe that the “Ignorance of the Descendants Will Destroy the Future and Erase the Past.” In sum, Central Asian Islam or Muslimness among the formerly nomadic Kazakhs and Kyrgyz should be understood within the combination of two religious contexts, namely the Islamic and the pre-Islamic, or indigenous. We cannot deny the role and significance of either of them if we are to give an accurate view of their traditional and religious values. The current Central and Inner Asian traditional religion is composed of “the adaptations of home grown and ‘imported’ religious concepts and patterns that had been assimilated as its own by a particular community at a particular time, regardless of its ‘origin’ as a cultural historian might insist upon. Islam itself eventually became part of that ‘indigenous’ tradition just as earlier ‘foreign’ elements had.”399 Moreover, as Privratsky notes, what really matters is the “local contextualizations” of Islam among the 399
DeWeese, p. 29. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 352 Kazakhs and “other peoples like them with adequate means of laying hold of the Muslim life even where its orthopractic and legal tradition is weakly understood, inconvenient, or perceived as foreign.”400 The main argument of this thesis is that it was due to their nomadic life and ancient religious worldview that the Kyrgyz (and Kazakhs) did not and could not fully adopt Islam, which is mostly suitable for sedentary societies and cultures. It is true that all Kyrgyz, except for a few herding families, lived a sedentary life during the Soviet period for more than seventy years. However, the Islamization process among the nomadic Kyrgyz ceased after the Soviets occupied Central Asia. Due to strong anti- Islamic and anti-“shamanic” campaigns and the atheist ideology of the Communist Soviet Union, the Kyrgyz estranged themselves from some of the formal Islamic practices and values, which they had already adopted before the Soviet occupation. Most of their pre- Islamic religious practices and values, which also suffered from Soviet anti-religious propaganda, had been Islamized by the end of the 19th century. Therefore, many ordinary people do not and cannot well distinguish between Islamic and pre-Islamic practices and beliefs. Now, after their independence, the Kyrgyz continue to lead a sedentary life, which they had adopted in the early Soviet period. The historical process of Islamization among nomadic Kyrgyz and Kazakhs, which had ceased after the Soviet establishment, is resuming again. Both fundamentalist Islamic groups, such as Hizb-ut-Tahrir and official Orthodox (Sunni) Islam, are fighting against native/nomadic practices and beliefs among many other aspects of secular life in Kyrgyzstan. 400
Privratsky, p. 243. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 353 There is also the homegrown intellectual movement, Tengirchilik, promoted by native scholars and intellectuals, who want their people to progress by fostering their ancestral worldview. As scholars and anthropologists in the field of humanities, we must acknowledge some of the legitimate views of native scholars and intellectuals and support them in their effort to preserve certain traditions and values from which the modem world can greatly benefit. As Sari'gulov mentioned, the value or uniqueness of the Tengirchilik worldview is that it puts Nature above everything, including human beings. Nature and Its forces should be considered sacred because they function like a prophet who brings the message of Tengir, God, Allah, Quday, etc. Respecting and preserving Nature by considering that everything in It has a soul must be a universal belief. Like many other international environmentalist organizations, the advocates of Tengirchilik want to teach people to respect and preserve Nature. They take a spiritual approach to tell or warn people that Nature or Mother Earth can and will no longer tolerate humans’ exploitation of Her natural resources and other countless environmental problems caused by humans. Like all the other creatures on the Earth, human life will continue to depend on Nature. Therefore, there is a possible future connection between
The nomadic Kyrgyz and Kazakhs did not practice writing and thus did not leave any written records about their customs and social life in general. However, they developed a unique verbal art, which allowed them to preserve major socio-cultural and historical events in oral form and pass them from one generation to the next, each time renewing and adapting them to the conditions of their changing life and times. Thus, the nomadic Kazakhs and Kyrgyz stored and celebrated their socio-cultural history in oral Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 54 forms, e.g., epic poetry, folktales, proverbs, and ayt'ish singing contests between aki'ns, or improvising oral poets. As a primary and native source, epic songs in particular contain rich and first-hand information about people’s religious beliefs, socio-cultural values, and customs, including funeral rites. The bearers and transmitters of this oral tradition were the wise and eloquent members of the society such as elders, poets, epic singers, storytellers, and healers/shamans, who were living books. In his very recent book titled Jilga bergis jarim ktin401 (A Half Day Which Cannot be Exchanged for a Year), Sulayman Kayipov, an expert on Kyrgyz oral tradition, writes like many other Kyrgyz intellectuals his true feelings about the current and future state and fate of Kyrgyz national heritage and identity. He truly burns (ktiy-) and aches (si'zda-) inside and asks: “If I, who was bom as a Kyrgyz, who grew up as a Kyrgyz, and who will die as a Kyrgyz, does not ache [care], who will? If I and others like me do not bum [care], who will bum [care] for the Kyrgyz, please tell me, my brother!”402 He continues: “If we do not care, the spirits of our ancestors won’t leave us alone. If we do not care, our children will not care either.”403 As a native scholar and member of a small nation like the Kyrgyz, I also strongly believe that the loss of our traditional customs and native language equates to the loss of the Kyrgyz nation and their identity. As many Kyrgyz believe, it was not Islam or Muslimness that preserved the Kyrgyz for many centuries as one people or ethnic group, but it was rather their distinctive traditional 401 Kayipov, Sulayman. Jilga bergis jarim ktin (A Half Day Which Cannot be Exchanged for a Year). Bishkek, 2006. 402 The sentence in Kyrgyz reads: “. . . Kirgiz bolup torolgdn, Kirgiz bolup jetilgen, Kirgiz boydon oliiiigo bel baylagan, men sizdabay kim sizdayt; men jana men sinduular kiiyboso, bul kirgizga kim kiiyot, aytchi, tuugan!” Ibid., p. 138. 403 Op.cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 355 customs and values, and the art of oral creativity all, of which stemmed from their nomadic lifestyle. As the Central Asian saying states Aalim boluu ongoy, adam boluu kiyin, “It is easy to become a scholar, but it is difficult to become a good human being,” many people can be smart by reading books, writing scholarly works, and inventing new sociocultural theories, but it is more important for scholars to be of good use for the society, to interact with people of all backgrounds and help them to bridge their traditional values and life with those of the modem world. We must educate new generation(s) of people who will be able to live according to their own national/traditional values, and yet can live peacefully with their neighbors by showing tolerance for cultural and religious diversity. Finally, it is impossible to achieve or find absolute truth about anything. One time, after our interesting discussion of the above religious debates between Islamic and Kyrgyz nomadic traditions, my father Mamatkerim said: “No one knows the absolute truth about this world and next world. Do you know what Omar Hayam wrote?” And he recited in Uzbek from his memory the following four lines from Hayam translated into Uzbek by an Uzbek poet: Biz kelib ketguchi tu’garak jahon, Na boshi malimu, na ohiri ayon, Gar su’rsalar, hech kim aytib berolmas, Biz qaydan keldig-u, keturmiz qayon. Lit:
This round earth into which we come and from which we depart, No one knows how it came into existence and how it will end, If someone asks, no one can answer Where we came from and where we will go [after we die].404 404
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 356 However, a majority of ordinary people try to make sense of their life and the world in which they live by having meaningful interactions with each other. These interactions and communal and national identities are built around certain religious beliefs, traditional values, and customs, which make up “Culture.” Culture is not frozen in time of course; it goes through the processes of renewal or/and change during historical periods of transition. It is usually during those transition periods, such as modernization, westernization, and globalization that people, mainly intellectuals, turn to traditional values of their national heritage to solve the socio-cultural problems that their societies face. Moreover, this national and cultural self-protection is arising in places like Kyrgyzstan because other major prophetic religions such as Islam and Christianity, especially their fundamentalist or fanatic believers, are fighting or competing with each other over prospective converts. Peoples and cultures which are religiously characterized as “pagan” also believe in the existence of one God, but they communicate with God by developing and practicing different sets of rituals and customs due to various ecological, environmental, and socio-economic factors. Privratsky, indeed, does a very good job in convincing his readers to believe in his theory of collective memory applied to Kazakh religion. It is to be noticed, that as a pious Christian missionary and scholar, he does see the value of any religious behaviors and rituals that come from non-monotheist or pagan religions. He states: “. . . in the collective memory of the Kazaks it is not these archaic And out o f it, as Wind along the Waste, I know not Whither, willy-nilly blowing.” {The Rubaiyat o f Omar Khayam by Edward Fitzgerald. Hypertext Meanings and Commentaries from the Encyclopedia o f the Self by Mark Zimmerman. URL: www.selfknowledge.com) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 357 traditions [i.e., native; pre-Islamic or un-Islamic] but “our Muslimness,” the Muslimness of our ancestors that requires us to remember them with the Quran and a sacred meal. Inner Asian religious values have been conceptually and affectively accommodated to Islam in a thoroughgoing way.”405 Due to his Christian background, he finds comfort in the idea that Kazakhs are not pagans, but Muslims who share many common religious values with Christians. However, I and other Kyrgyz intellectuals may be criticized by Privratsky and others alike for doing the same thing. As learned native scholars, we cannot stand aside and allow other scriptural religions to condemn our traditional values and customs. It is difficult to prove that nomadic Kazakhs and Kyrgyz embraced Islam voluntarily and overnight. Islamization was achieved after many centuries of resistance. Yes, today, in their “collective memory,” most Kyrgyz and Kazakhs consider themselves and their ancestors Muslim from time immemorial. This is because the majority of people do not know the political history of Islam, or how it spread. Their ancestors did voluntarily not forget their native beliefs and choose Islam over their native religious beliefs. In the same way that Christianity was brutally imposed on Native Americans, Islam was not tolerant of nomadic religious values and practices, and Islamization was achieved through conquest and organized missionary works. The historical process of Islamization erased most of the existing native “collective memory” and the second phase of that process is taking place now. The Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz do remember their pre- Islamic traditional values and religious practices. What they don't remember is where those values came from. Their ancient religious beliefs and traditional values were not written in holy books such as Quran, Bible, and Torah, but had turned into their lifestyle. 405
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