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- 1 The Invention o f Tradition. Ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger. Cambridge: Cambridge Universty Press, 1983. 2 Ibid., p. 1.
- Edited by Henrietta L. Moore. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press; Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1999, p. 277.
- Every fifty years, people were new, Every hundred years the earth was renewed.
- 4 Lewellen, Ted C. The Anthropology o f Globalization. Cultural Anthropology Enters the 21st Century.
- 6 Choyun Omuraliev is an independent journalist and writer and also the author o f the book called Tengirchilik
- 7 Abu-Lughod, Lila, “Writing Against Culture” in Recapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present. Richard Fox, ed. Sante Fe: School o f American Research Press, 1991.
- Chapter I: “Fieldwork” in the Native “Field” 7
- 9 Ibid., p. 9. 10 Op.cit.
- 11 Op.cit. 12 Women in the Field, p. 5. 13 Ibid., p. 11
- 14 Notes from Stevan Harrell, Anthropologist at the University o f Washington, Seattle
1 Introduction: Theory and Methodology As a newcomer to the western field of anthropology and ethnography, I became overwhelmed with the complex, diverse, ambiguous, and fluid nature of anthropological theories and approaches applied to human subjects. In the 1980’s, Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger’s new concept of “the invention of tradition”1 called anthropologists to explore “the politics of culture” in postcolonial nation states. It maintains that the so-called “old traditions” invented in the 19th and 20th century Europe and argues that many of those “traditions” are “actually invented, constructed and formally instituted.”2 Nicholas Thomas raises an important issue in his attempt to define the goal of writing about culture: “The most vital questions to address are perhaps not: what do we need to preserve or defend in particular disciplinary frameworks? Or, what are the respective strengths of anthropology and cultural studies? But: who are we writing or creating representations for? And what do we want to tell them?”3 Then there are other scholars, like Lewellen, who opposes the “degree of postmodernist rejectionism.” He is critical of postmodernism’s “unique” ability to reject all the grand theories, but its failure to validate its statements. According to Lewellen, “A reader has the right to ask of any
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 non-fiction text, “Why should I believe this? What are the criteria by which I should judge this to be true than what others say on this subject?”4 He further states: Each country or region or even community has its own dynamics, which are unique combinations of the traditional, the national, and the global. Although postmodernism may critique Western domination, and its relativistic philosophy has been amenable to many Third World scholars, it was not developed to deal with some postmodern conditions in the Third World. As a result, there is no reason to privilege postmodern theories.5 Theorizing is still an ongoing process in postmodern anthropology. Therefore, the validity of many current theories in most scholarly fields, including postmodernist anthropology, may last until the world/earth and the peoples and societies that inhabit it experience another major geo-political and cultural change. Kyrgyz epic singers, as thinkers of their time, have long realized change as a natural phenomenon and thus approached their subject, i.e., the study of oral history, through epic poems such as
Mountains fell apart, turning into ravines, Ravines shook, turning into mountains. Many seas became extinct Leaving only their names behind.
Studying a society and its culture, especially that of the “Others” and putting their knowledge in a theoretical framework and finally representing them to the other “Others” i.e., the foreign audience, is indeed a very complex and difficult task. By reading some of 4 Lewellen, Ted C. The Anthropology o f Globalization. Cultural Anthropology Enters the 21st Century. Wesport, Connecticut, London: Bergin & Garvey, 2002, p. 47. 5 Ibid., p. 40. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 the key works written by western anthropologists about other cultures, I learned first of all how the western mind and thinking works in general and sees other cultures. In my research, I was faced with the dilemma how to approach and interpret my subject of study, the Kyrgyz nomadic culture. Should I repudiate, as some postmodernists suggest, the study of culture as being whole and homogenous in favor of “ethnographies of particular”? As a native scholar, who has received her academic training in the West, how do I approach my native culture? What is my position as author and my goal in representing some socio-cultural aspects of the society in which I grew up? Should I do my best to convince my readers about the validity of my statements and claims? It is my personal opinion that ethnographers should not look for cultural issues and problems which are foreign or have little significance to the local people. Those “ethnographies of particular” or individuals, who do not quite conform to or fit into his/her traditional society, may find more value and appreciation in western society, because the main target for many ethnographic works is the western readership As implied earlier, throughout its history, western anthropology employed many theoretical and methodological approaches and changes in studying other cultures. Western ethnographic writings passed through their traditional trend or “process of othering” other native cultures and now it seems to search for new, more “humane” methods which would not necessarily represent other culture as being different from the western world. This approach, in my opinion, is irrelevant and artificial. We can and should still portray other peoples and their cultures as being different or “strange” if they are indeed so. It is our obligation as intellectuals and scholars not just to identify our differences, but also to explain them within their contexts and finally teach our readers to respect and tolerate Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
4 those cultural and religious differences. In other words, it is not right to pick and choose those issues, which mostly interest the western audience in the name of subverting the “process of othering.” I also believe that society and its social structure are never static, but rather in constant change as well as continuity. However, the results of my research in Kizll-Jar did not fully confirm the idea of non-existence of coherent and whole societies. The case of the Kyrgyz people in Ki'zil-Jar shows that representatives of one particular culture, in this case the formerly nomadic culture can exist in “stable equilibrium” and thus create a “concept of culture” or “cultural whole”. I personally was not interested in studying the ethnography of a particular family or person within the Kyrgyz society. What interested me the most was to explain to my western audience, “the others,” why certain traditional customs among the Kyrgyz, are resistant to changes that are coming from outside, e.g., from Islam. At the same time, my work highlights the differences within Kyrgyz society and discusses a field of discourse or conversation in which people disagree with each other, but within a framework where they understand the disagreements. In other words, I address not only why do certain funeral rituals persist, but why are there Islamists and Tengirists and how do these opposing groups of intellectuals argue with each other. In my view, studies that are done by some foreign researchers tend to reflect those cultural values and concepts of which he/she is a bearer. Most ethnographers who study other cultures are from developed western countries and societies where individualism and individual rights are more valued and respected than those of the society. The concepts of traditional culture and ideas of collective or communal identity or communal interests in general have negative connotations in the west. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5 During my interview, I asked a Kyrgyz intellectual, Choyun Omuraliev,6 whether there is such a thing called “Kyrgyz traditional society” today. He gave the following interesting answer: Yes, there is. However, in the west, people see it [tradition] as a negative concept. They also consider nomads and nomadism as being negative. It is because the concept of tradition comes from the ancient Greeks. In Greece, tradition did not reach its classical form but remained in its primitive state because they introduced human rights, law and civil state. Therefore, in their view, tradition still remains primitive, whereas, in our society, tradition has been filtered and modified during the course of thousands of years and only the pure, golden stem remained thus reaching the highest peak of morality. When westerners think of a traditional society, they imagine the ancient Greek society and automatically copy its image to our society. They mostly see and explain tradition in their own way with no wish to understanding what we have inside. The term for “tradition” in Kyrgyz is salt, which also means “custom.” Like many other peoples in the world, the Kyrgyz did not have the understanding of the concept of a “traditional society” when referring to their own society and culture. This concept is known among Kyrgyz scholars only. Ordinary Kyrgyz did not and do not question the negative or positive sides of salt. Unlike in the west, the term salt has a positive connotation in most contexts. Whenever, the Kyrgyz, especially the elderly and intellectuals, talk about their salt, they stress that traditions and customs need to be preserved, for they are full of wisdom and lessons for life. I could not apply the approach of “ethnographies of particular” suggested by Lila Abu-Lughod7 to my study of Kyrgyz nomadic culture. If I had done ten or thirty 6 Choyun Omuraliev is an independent journalist and writer and also the author o f the book called Tengirchilik (1991). See Chapter 6 for a detailed discussion o f his theory and analysis o f the ancient worldview o f Tengirchilik. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 “ethnographies of particular” or individuals among the Kyrgyz, I would have end up getting similar results on traditional customs and religious values. My approach definitely conformed cohesion and homogeneity. There was less “chaos” and more cohesion in the life of the Kyrgyz people living in Kizil-Jar. And it is those customs and values to which the majority of the Kyrgyz conform that I wanted to address and analyze in my research. 7 Abu-Lughod, Lila, “Writing Against Culture” in Recapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present. Richard Fox, ed. Sante Fe: School o f American Research Press, 1991. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter I: “Fieldwork” in the Native “Field” 7 By putting an exclusive focus on the object(s) of study, which are people, the traditional practice and discipline of anthropology had underestimated the significance of the role and status of the person conducting the study, the researcher. Today, the postmodern approach and methodology of fieldwork strongly encourages or “requires” from anthropologists that they identify their status and position clearly to the people under study, and write explicitly about their fieldwork experiences, especially when they conduct their work in so-called “indigenous” or “native” cultures. Modern anthropologists openly share their personal accounts of their experiences in foreign communities, talk about the process of adjustment to another culture, and discuss the ethical and pragmatic challenges of conducting ethnographic fieldwork. In short, an anthropologist tells his/her audience ’’what it means to be an anthropologist.”8 This new ethnographic approach, called “reflexive writing,” enables the reader to get a fuller and more intimate picture of the fieldwork experience, of what it took for the author to gather the necessary materials. In other words, scholars have recognized the fact that the fieldworker's position makes a difference in what is written and how. About two decades ago, the practice of ethnography was the task of mainly western anthropologists, today, as cultural anthropology enters the 21st century, the age of globalization, western anthropologists are sharing human subjects, still largely dealing with non-western societies, with their native colleagues. However, since the field of 8 Women in the Field. Anthropological Experiences. 2nd edition. Ed. by Peggy Goldie. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University o f California Press, 1986, p. 4. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 anthropology as an academic discipline was founded in the West, western anthropological theories, fieldwork approaches, and methodologies still play a dominant role in anthropological world scholarship. This draws native anthropologists to western institutions, where they receive their academic training in anthropology, and then conduct their fieldwork in their own cultures. As a result of this anthropological globalization, several terms have been coined in regard to the status and identity of fieldworkers, such as “outsider,” “insider,” “foreign,” “western,” “native,” and “halfie,” or “hybrid.” Some native scholars question and challenge some of the western approaches and methodologies applied to non-western cultures and societies. There are disagreements not only between the two groups, native and western, but also within each group as to whose account is more authentic. The presence of non-western anthropologists has opened up a dialogue of various viewpoints by people from both sides of the divide. All fieldworkers, native and non-native alike, share one common feature: “The research worker is not just an average representative of his culture; he has a unique personality of his own by which his description will be colored, just as it is affected by his general cultural conditioning.” 9 In another words, the researcher’s description is similar to a painting in which one sees the painter’s “self portrait” or “self projection.”10 Like romantics and realists, both native and foreign anthropologists also have different personalities, minds, and tastes, which affect their description or interpretation of another 9 Ibid., p. 9. 10 Op.cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 culture. However, it is said that even a realist person will present “a slanted picture” of the people/culture by transporting some of his personality.11 As mentioned earlier, postmodern anthropology recognizes the significance of the researcher’s personality, status and identity in the practice of ethnography. As Peggy Goldie notes: “There is a need for more open speculation and consideration of such issues as: how were my data affected by the kind of person I am, by my sex or other apparent attributes, and how did my presence alter, positively or negatively, the flux of life under 19 observation?” It needs to be added that the researcher’s ability to speak the language of the people with whom he/she is working with is the utmost requirement. One always needs to question the quality of the information gathered through interpreters. The researcher’s personality is also very important in acquiring their trust or distrust. It is also a challenge for an outsider, whose behavioral manners and thinking have solidified in his or her own culture, to fit into a foreign culture. The western view, understanding, and experience of a non-western culture and society will differ to a large extent from that of a native scholar. We learn this when reading personal accounts describing the socio cultural experiences of western scholars who conduct their fieldwork in far away and strange “fields.” American anthropologists admit the fact that outsider fieldworkers “can never become or go native.” During their fieldwork, many foreign fieldworkers symbolically go through a process generally known as “culture shock,” a term coined by Ruth Benedict. Culture shock is described as a “syndrome precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all your familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse.”13 Native
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 researchers do not necessarily experience these negative experiences during their fieldwork in their own society. Unfortunately, the majority of American anthropologists conduct their fieldwork in other countries with very little or with no knowledge of the local people’s language and work with questionable interpreters usually native speakers living on the fringe of their own society. Another difference in the approach of native and foreign anthropologists to the study of culture is that native scholars mostly focus on their people’s folk traditions. This is often interpreted by the outsider anthropologists as evidence of “nationalism.” Native anthropologists are believed to be interested in the “propaganda mission of showing their culture to the world, and as such are much more interested in showing off their epics than their systems of marriage relations.”14 For many native scholars and for their societies, however, marriage and gender are considered to be common issues found in every society, but the cultural uniqueness of “backward” societies can be found in the art of oral creativity as, e.g., in epic songs and traditional poetry. Western theories, methodologies and approaches do not always work for understanding non-westemers and their cultures. A Maori scholar, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, eloquently and powerfully critiques the dominant research methodologies and approaches to so-called “indigenous” peoples and their cultures, and proposes a valuable research agenda for indigenous scholars. Like the Estonian scholar Tasnas Hofer, she argues that Western education inhibits indigenous scholars from writing from a “real” or indigenous point of view. If they do write from a traditional point of view, they are criticized as 14 Notes from Stevan Harrell, Anthropologist at the University o f Washington, Seattle Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 being “naive,” “nativist,” or “illogical.” 15 There should not be just one (Western) approach dominating any academic field, especially not the study of mankind. Unlike outsiders, many insider or native scholars cannot easily detach themselves from their own people or society and Western/American scholars can also not detach themselves from their own society. But even though many “indigenous,” or “native” peoples are physically no longer living in the colonial world, the psychological legacy of colonialism has not yet disappeared. Western scholarship needs to understand these important variables and give enough space for native scholars to voice their views and interpretations freely.
Before discussing my own identity as a native researcher or “fieldworker,” I would like to discuss briefly the very Western concept of “fieldwork.” Although modem anthropologists live and write their ethnographic works in the post-colonial world, the legacy of colonialist anthropology survived in its essential practice of “fieldwork.” Many anthropologists agree that the term “fieldwork” itself reflects the old traditional western and colonialist mentality and attitude towards non-westem peoples and their lands. Fieldwork is still carried out largely by anthropologists and sociologists from the West, and mostly targeted towards non-westem societies and cultures. Like many scholars, I not only find the term to be obsolete, but also disrespectful of and discriminatory towards non-westem human subjects. To be specific, for me the word “field” connotes the idea and image of a wild and uninhabited place. To say that a “fieldworker conducts or Download 2.95 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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