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- Nomadic-Sedentary Interaction in Eurasia
- 40 Han Almaz X,. Split Identities: Making Minzu/Ethnic Subjects in Inner Mongolia, P eople’s Republic o f China
- 42 “The Kul Tigin Inscription,” translated by Oztopchu Kurutulush and Sherry Smith-Williams. In: Anthology o f Turkish Literature.
- 47 Westerners, including Russians, use a misinformed term for the dwelling o f the Central Asian nomads.
- 48 Lehman. F. K. “Who Are the Karen, and If So, Why Karen Ethnohistory and a Formal Theory o f
- Charles Keyes, Philadelphia: Institute for the Study o f Human Issues, 1979, p. 215.
- 49 Barfield, Thomas. The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, 221 BC to AD 1757. Cambridge. Mass.: B. Blackwell, 1989.
- University Press, 1998.
Chapter III: Dynamics of Identity Formation among the Kyrgyz and Uzbeks: Legacies of Nomadic-Sedentary Differences Introduction Having provided the above information about the ethnic composition and the socio-economic history of the town of Kizil-Jar, we can now talk about the dynamics and processes of identity formation in the formerly nomadic Kyrgyz and sedentary Uzbek societies, who are the main ethnic groups living the Ferghana Valley. We need to ask: What role did historical nomad and sedentary interaction play in creating and fostering ethnic boundaries between the two peoples? What were and are some of the main socio cultural and psychological factors that kept and still keep the two ethnic groups apart? Are these factors indeed a side effect of their pre-Soviet religious and socio-cultural values and traditions, which are in turn rooted in the two distinct lifestyles they led in the past? Or is this division the legacy of the seventy-year rule of the Soviet system, which is said to have artificially created heterogeneous nation states out of the homogeneous region called Turkistan by granting each ethnic group a separate national territory, identity, literary language/alphabet, national dress, and national elite? Or could this ethno-cultural division be the legacy of both pre-Soviet, historical nomadic-sedentary interaction and the Soviet political system? Even though the Soviet indigenization policy played a major role in dividing ethnic groups, I argue that prior to Soviet territorialization and indigenization, an “unofficial” ethno-cultural division existed on a local or popular level between the nomadic Kyrgyz (or tribal groups) and sedentary Uzbeks/Sarts. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 As a result of Soviet nationality policy in the 1920’s, today there exist clearly marked nation states such as Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, etc., and clearly demarcated ethno-national groups, such as the Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, and Uzbeks. In contrast to simple-minded interpretations of ethnicity as a totally modem phenomenon, in fact there have been cultural, ecological, and political boundaries between sedentary and nomadic Turks for a long time; the modem process of ethno genesis has to be understood as starting from a situation in which there were already boundaries and those boundaries were further strengthened by Soviet indigenization policy which granted titular ethnic groups a separate national territory, alphabet, school system, and language by codifying the Turkic dialects into separate languages. Despite the fact that various Turkic speaking peoples of Central Asia share a common history, culture, and root language, people living in each independent republic today are very self-conscious about their national identity as Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Turkmens, and Tajiks. Soviet nationality policy played a key role in hardening the national/ethnic identities among the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. The creation of national or ethnic identity is a result of the official indigenization policies of larger multi-ethnic states or empires such as the Soviet Union and China. Both of them had and still have many minority ethnic groups living in their territory. It is usually the titular nation that tries to legitimize its power over the rest by presenting itself as an “elder brother.” For example, together with many other minority ethnic groups living in the People’s Republic of China, the Inner Mongols have been the subjects of the Chinese official policy of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
89 minzufication. 40 According to Almaz Khan, China portrays herself as a modem and highly civilized Han-Chinese nation. Almaz Khan also maintains that national identity as a Mongol previously was not that important, but it was revived after the Cultural Revolution of the I960’s. It is argued that political events during the Cultural Revolution resulted in the emergence of national or ethnic Inner Mongol identity vis-a-vis the Han- Chinese. 41 Nomadic-Sedentary Interaction in Eurasia Historically, the region of Eurasia was the homeland of various Turkic and Mongol peoples and their states and empires. Since the ancient times of nomad-sedentary interaction in Eurasia, the Turco-Mongol nomads have played a vital role in the socio economic and political history of that part of the world. Eurasian nomadic empires and peoples have not lived in isolation, but have interacted with the sedentary world for thousands of years. As a result of their close interactions, they adopted or integrated into their own cultures different religious beliefs and practices of sedentary cultures and religions such as Buddhism, Nestorian-Christianity, Manicheism, and Islam. Moreover, merchants and travelers from East and West traveled along the Silk Road, going through the vast territories of Eurasia inhabited by the Turco-Mongol nomadic peoples. This resulted in trade and cultural exchanges the between sedentary and nomadic worlds. By the 20th century, traditional pastoral nomadism and these powerful nomadic empires — which existed for more than two thousand years — were gone. After the Soviet 40 Han Almaz X,. Split Identities: Making Minzu/Ethnic Subjects in Inner Mongolia, P eople’s Republic o f China (Doctoral Dissertation). University o f Washington, 1999. 41 Ibid., pp. 2-5. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 occupation of Central Asia, the nomadic Kazakhs and Kyrgyz had no choice but to leave their jayloos (pasturelands), give up their livestock, become settled, and integrate into sedentary Russian/Soviet culture; however, the historical, political, economic, and socio cultural interactions between the two worlds left unique socio-cultural legacies among the Central Asian Turkic nomads, especially among the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz. Despite their different socio-economic organizations and lifestyles, sedentary and nomadic, Uzbeks and Kyrgyz share a common Turkic language, pre-Islamic and Islamic religious beliefs and practices, and sedentary/agricultural life. Historical socio-economic lifestyle divisions between the nomadic Kyrgyz and sedentary Uzbeks in the Ferghana Valley have vanished. All rural Kyrgyz, except some herder families, live a sedentary life in permanent brick and mud houses all year round, and largely practice agriculture like the Uzbeks. But despite their common linguistic, historical, and cultural heritage, both ethnic groups demonstrate strong sentiments of separate self and national identity. For various reasons, which I explore in my research, the two peoples have certain “prejudices” towards each other’s socio-cultural values, such that intermarriage between the two groups rarely takes place. The Kyrgyz consider it almost a disgrace if a Kyrgyz girl marries an Uzbek man and many Uzbeks feel the same about a Kyrgyz man or an Uzbek girl. The 8th century A.D. Orkhon-Turkic inscriptions written on stones in Old Turkic are the best proof for the above argument. Bilge Qagan, ruler of the Turkic Empire, which existed between 552-744 A.D in Inner Asia, erected an eternal stone honoring his brother Kultegin Qagan. The Kultegin inscription, which reflects the style of an oral traditional epic, is full of patriotic feelings. Bilge Qagan is desperate to save his people Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
91 and empire from the Chinese with whom they closely interacted. Since the text of the inscription is too long to cite here, I will select only those passages which reflect the “nationalistic” sentiments of Bilge Qagan towards his “Turk people.” On the south side of the stone, he begins his words by addressing his brothers, sons, family, people, nobles and military commanders, and asks them to listen to his words carefully. Then he talks about his campaigns against other people and places by naming all the geographical names. He gives messages and advice to his Turk people. Among all the places, Bilge qagan singles out the Otiken Mountain-Forest from where he ruled his Empire, and he warns his people not to go far from the Otuken Mountain-Forest, lest be destroyed by their enemies: The words of the Chinese people are sweet and the silk of the Chinese people is soft. They attract remote peoples, luring them with sweet words and soft silk. When the Chinese have settled remote peoples nearby, they devise schemes to create discontent there. Good wise men and good brave men are prevented from moving about freely. If a man turns against them, they show no mercy towards his family, his people nor even towards babies in the cradle. In this way, enticed by the sweet words and the soft silk of the Chinese, many of you Turk people have perished 42 This message of Bilge Qagan clearly demonstrates the fact the Turk people had already developed their “national” self-consciousness in the 8th century C.E. Bilge Qagan has a clear idea about the mentality or character of the Chinese people, who were sedentary. He definitely knew and his Turk people probably also knew about the territorial and cultural boundaries that existed between the Turks and the Chinese. On the east side of the memorial stone, Bilge Qagan talks about his ancestors, Bumin Qagan and Istemi Qagan, who created the Turk Empire and codified its traditional 42 “The Kul Tigin Inscription,” translated by Oztopchu Kurutulush and Sherry Smith-Williams. In: Anthology o f Turkish Literature. Edited by Kemal Silay. Bloomington, Indiana: Turkish Studies and Ministry o f Culture o f Joint Series XV, 1996, p. 2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 laws. He very much regrets the fact that after the death of his ancestors, many Turk nobles were deceived by the Chinese: Their sons, destined to be nobles, became slaves of the Chinese, and their daughters, destined to become ladies, became chattels of the Chinese people. The Turk nobles gave up their Turk titles and, inclining toward the Chinese, took Chinese titles, became subjects of the Chinese qagan, and gave him their service for fifty years.. . . 43 Thus all the Turk common folk said: “We were a people with an enemy of our own; where is our enemy now?” “For whom are we conquering these lands?” they said. “We were people with a qagan of our own; where is our
Then the Turk Heaven above and the Turk Holy Earth and Water acted in this way: So that the Turk people would not perish, so that the Turk people would be united, the gods on high elevated my father Ilterish qagan and my mother Ilbilge qatun. Thereupon my father the qagan set out with
seventeen men........ “We settled the Turk people and organized them in the west as far as the Kengu Tarman. At that time, slaves became the owners of slaves and chattel became owners of chattels. That was how our empire was won and our tribal laws reestablished 45 So that the name and reputation of the people whom our father and uncle had conquered would not cease to exist, and for the sake of our Turk people, I spent nights without sleeping and days without resting.. . ,46 These eloquent words of a Turk qagan from the 8th century reflect strong self-conscious nationalistic feelings about the Turk people. As mentioned earlier, it is quite possible that the Chinese accepted those Turks — who, as Bilge Qagan mentions, learned Chinese ideograms — into their community without feeling that they were nationally distinct. However, it is clear that the Turks felt strongly about who they were and how important it was for them to keep their identity separate from the Chinese people for the above reasons that Bilge Qagan mentions.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 “The Nomadic Factor” in Kyrgyz Identity I believe that originally, the Kyrgyz—or the Eurasian nomads in general — did not call themselves “nomads,” nor describe their lifestyle and culture as being “nomadic,” since the boz iiy, yurt,47 was both their permanent and portable dwelling, whereas the mountains and pastures were their homeland. They have the word “koch,” which, as a verb means to “to move” and as a noun means “migration.” However, there is no native Kyrgyz/Turkic word for “nomad.” It is most likely that it was their sedentary neighbors the Persians, Tajiks and later Uzbeks who created the second noun, “nomad” by adding the Persian suffix “man” to the Kyrgyz noun “koch.” So, together “kochman” (“kochmon” in Kyrgyz, “koshpend'f” in Kazakh) means a “nomad.” I believe that once the Kyrgyz became fully sedentary, they started to use the word kochmon, meaning both nomad and nomadic to refer to their traditional culture and lifestyle. Upon adopting a sedentary life, they estranged the nomadic life from themselves and started to look at their past history and life style from a sedentary point of view. Russians used the native Turkic word “koch” and added the Russian suffixes “evnik” and “voy” to make it into a noun and adjective forms: “kochevnik” for nomad and “kochevoy” for nomadic. Another interesting point to be made is about the connection between modem Kyrgyz identity and their nomadic past. For instance, even though the majority of Kyrgyz living in the countryside—including my hometown of Kizil-Jar—have been living a sedentary life for more than a half-century, they live sedentary in form (i.e., they live in 47 Westerners, including Russians, use a misinformed term for the dwelling o f the Central Asian nomads. Yurt is a Turkic word which means the homeland, as well as the trace of ground where the “yurt” is erected. Central Asian nomads—including Mongols, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Tuvans and Turkmens—all have different names for their yurt. The Kyrgyz call it boz iiy (gray house), gray referring to the color o f the felt covering. The Mongols call it a “ger” which closely relates to the Kyrgyz word “kerege” i.e., the collapsible wooden frame of the yurt. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 permanent houses and practice agriculture), but nomadic in content (they practice and cherish nomadic customs and values in their family and social relationships, feasting, cooking, and eating). Most interestingly, in identifying themselves or in creating their image as Kyrgyz, the neighboring Uzbeks and their sedentary culture used to play and still do play an important role. In other words, “ethnic identity has a great deal to do with the way peoples adapt, especially to their socio-political environment, that is, to other peoples.”48 We know from historical nomad-sedentary interaction in Eurasia that nomads traditionally looked down on sedentary peoples and their cultures, and in the same way sedentary people looked down on nomadic peoples. The popular saying among the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz “Ozbek oz agam, sart sadagam,” “An Uzbek is my own brother/kinsman, but a Sart is just my pocket change” attests to the fact that the nomadic Kazakhs and Kyrgyz made a distinction between Uzbeks, who were nomads originally, and Sarts, who were the original inhabitants of Central Asia and they primarily engaged in farming and trading. Later, when all Uzbeks adopted sedentary life and Islamic culture, intermarried with the local Sart/Tajik population and engaged themselves in farming and trading, the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs, who were still leading their nomadic life, began identifying them as Sarts. Today, the term Sart carries derogatory connotation and it is very offensive to call Uzbeks Sart. 48 Lehman. F. K. “Who Are the Karen, and If So, Why? Karen Ethnohistory and a Formal Theory o f Ethnicity,” In: Ethnic Adaptation and Identity: The Karen on the Thai Frontier with Burma. Edited by Charles Keyes, Philadelphia: Institute for the Study o f Human Issues, 1979, p. 215. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 In his book titled The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China,49 Thomas Barfield writes about the historical interaction between various nomadic Turkic/Mongol empires and sedentary Chinese dynasties. He questions why the Turko-Mongol nomadic peoples interacted with the Chinese agrarian state for more than two thousand years and yet did not become politically incorporated by it nor adopt its culture.50 Barfield discusses some fundamental issues of the socio-political relationship between various Turko/Mongol nomadic empires of the steppe and different Chinese imperial dynasties, and identifies some of the major causes underlying the Chinese/nomadic conflict, which lasted for more than two millennia. Confucian scholars wrote mainly negative things about the nomads, whom they viewed as uncivilized barbarians. The relationship between the nomadic states and the sedentary Chinese dynasties is illuminated by a Kyrgyz expression which can be used to describe two peoples as “Kaynasa kani koshulbas (el/dushman),” “Even if you boil it, blood (i.e. of enemies/certain people) won’t mix.” Although the saying does not apply directly to the nomadic peoples’ relationship with the Chinese, it gives a clear depiction of the nature of the relationship between these two linguistically and culturally distinct peoples. Barfield also states: “These horse-riding nomads not only rejected Chinese culture and ideology, worse, they obstinately refused to see any value in it except in terms of the material goods the Chinese could offer.”51 In Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia,52 Inner Mongol anthropologist Uradyn Bulag examines the identity and nationalism of contemporary Mongols. He is critical of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 the “nationalism” of Halh [Khalka] Mongols living in Outer Mongolia. During his research in Outer Mongolia in the mid 1990’s, Bulag had a negative experience with his “relatives,” Halh Mongols who did not treat him well because he was from Inner Mongolia where Chinese influence is strong. Although Bulag spoke Mongolian, he was not considered a real Mongol by the Halh Mongols, for he spoke Mongolian with a Chinese accent and had adopted some of the Chinese “mentality” or manners. Also, he doesn’t mention this, but he was there with a Chinese wife. Inner Mongols were believed to have lost their gene pool because they mixed with Chinese. Bulag was accused of being a “half breed” Chinese who does not know real Mongol culture. Bulag tries to understand this quite “arrogant” nature of Mongol identity. He believes it is based on their previous nomadic heritage and their historical interaction with sedentary Chinese peasant culture. The stereotypical Mongol image of a Chinese merchant is a person riding on a small donkey carrying bags. So, the Mongols call the Chinese “sly donkeys,” while the Chinese call the Mongols “stupid cows.” Thus, according to the author, the two peoples’ views are deeply embedded in their modes of production, which played a major role in creating their separate social identities as nomadic pastoralists and sedentary farmers.
The author also tries to understand the distinct features of two societies by analyzing their attitudes towards food. Since nomadic Mongol’s diet was and still is to a certain extent based on animal husbandry, Mongols value meat and diary products more than vegetables. Mongols do not want to eat vegetables grown by Chinese farmers who use human excreta as fertilizer. In the Mongol view, human excreta is untouchable and its Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. |
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