Copyright 2007
Download 2.95 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- 136 All sen, Thomas. Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire. A Cultural History o f Islamic Textiles.
- 138 Basilov, V. N. Shamanstvo u narodov Srednei Azii i Kazakhstana. Moskva: "Nauka", 1992.
- 139 Lawrence, B. Bruce, “The Eastward Journey o f Muslim Kingship.” In: Oxford History o f Islam. Edited
- 140 Shamans and Elders, p. 51.
- 141 DeWeese, p. 13. 142 Ibid., p. 36.
- 143 Shamans and Elders, p. 128.
- Islam in the Soviet Period.
134 The term arbaq (Kyrgyz)laruaq (Kazakh) is the plural form o f Arabic “ruh” i.e., spirit is right in saying that the Turks lost their native word for spirit. The nomadic Kyrgyz and Kazakhs are not familiar with the Mongol term for spirit ongon. Privratsky, p. 148. 135 DeWeese., p. 37. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 Quran without knowing what they mean. Their prayers are in Arabic but the goal is to honor the spirit of their dead relatives and ancestors and ask for their support instead of worshipping Allah only. Therefore, our main task should lie not just in proving that the nomads, e.g. Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, identify themselves with Islam because their epics or legends give a lot of credit to Islam, but rather in studying their mixed or hybrid national or ethnic identity which developed under the two socio-cultural and religious systems of beliefs: Islam and “shamanism,” which is now being replaced with the term Tengirchilik (Tengrianstvo in Russian, Tengrianity in English). In addition, in analyzing such oral legends and epics containing Islamic elements, it is necessary to take into consideration the religious and cultural background of those people who wrote or told conversion tales such as Baba Tiikles. Most often, it is the outsiders, in this case perhaps Muslim missionaries or Sufis from Persia and Arabia, who legitimized their own religious belief over another pagan system. There is no doubt about the significance of Islam in people’s identity as a Muslim in Central Asia. However, it is not the main or the only marker of Kyrgyz identity as a nation, ethnic group, tribe, or individual. Islamic beliefs and values have been used interchangeably with their ancient customs, rituals and worldview in general. We would be mistaken to claim that nothing of the old or native beliefs was left after the adoption of Islam as Privratsky seems to apply.
In examining the history of Islamization of Central Asian nomads, scholars like Thomas Allsen propose the process of “selective borrowing” of beliefs and practices from Islam and adoption of Islamic values, and their relation to and incorporation into Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 pre-Islamic indigenous religious system. In the context of his study on commodity exchange in the Mongol Empire, Thomas Allsen concludes that . . . nomads, like all other peoples do not borrow randomly, but selectively by filtering new, external elements through their own cultural norms and aspirations. This process, known as re-identification to psychologists and anthropologists, is one of the principal mechanisms by which culture is transmitted, modified, and rejected. Whenever individuals or cultures encounter a new phenomenon, there is a pronounced tendency to place it into an established category, that is, to identify the new with something already familiar from experience.136 Providing existing cultural context for adopting new or foreign culture and its religious elements helps us to understand the process of incorporation of Islamic beliefs and values. Specifically, it reveals why certain Islamic religious ideas and principles were and are more valued and practiced, and why others are “rejected” or “modified” according to local religious and socio-cultural values. As Allsen notes, Central Asian Turco-Mongol nomads and nomadic states/empires headed by rulers like Attila, Chingiz Qan and Amir Temir, possessed rich nomadic cultures with their own “cosmological precepts, aesthetic norms, and system of moral and economic values. And it was these indigenous worldviews and tastes that provided their criteria for borrowing when they encountered and surveyed the cultural riches of the sedentary world.”137 Thus, in order to understand which elements of Islamic religious values and principles were welcomed and easily incorporated into the nomadic Turkic native beliefs, and why, we need to find out first what were and are the most important religious norms and values in the lives of the nomads, both before and after the adoption of Islam.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 138 In his book Shamanstvo u narodov Srednei Azii I Kazaxstana , a well-known Russian scholar and ethnographer V. N. Basilov, tries to show the “Islamized shamanism” in Central Asia and how this mixed religion was kept and practiced among its practitioners. He presents very interesting material describing shamanism as practiced in the Islamic cities of Uzbekistan. Basilov bases his study on his own extensive fieldwork research at different times between 1968-1989 among various Central Asian ethnic groups, mostly the Uzbeks, Tajiks, Karakalpaks, and Kazakhs living in the outskirts of Tashkent. Basilov supplements his own findings by using the works of other scholars and ethnographers such as Andreev, Bogoraz, Shtemberg, Tokareva, Sukhareva, and Balayielva who wrote about the role of Islam and pre-Islamic beliefs and “survival” among the Central Asian peoples. Basilov presents numerous examples about how Central Asians’ previous shamanic practices and beliefs incorporated many of the Islamic/Sufi ideas. He saw traditional Uzbek and Kazakh singers and healers who attached a special tumar or talisman with Quranic verses in it to their instruments and drums. Their prayers and healing vocabulary contained most of the Muslim saints’ names and the word Allah. One of the most explicit incorporations of Sufi practices was the act of zikr which the Uzbeks and Tajiks called jahr. This practice was the main part of shamanic acts in the cities of Khorezm and Bukhara when healing a sick person. In the past, the shamans put the sick person in the center and danced and sang bedik songs around him/her. The singing of the
and Kyrgyz as well as among the Altay peoples. However, in more Islamic cities such as 138 Basilov, V. N. Shamanstvo u narodov Srednei Azii i Kazakhstana. Moskva: "Nauka", 1992. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 Bukhara and Khorezm where the influence of Sufism was strong, the local shaman or healers adopted Sufi institutional practices such as the zikr. The majority of participants in zikr or jahr were women bakshis, healers and fortunetellers and they practiced the jahr in the evenings around 10 o’clock. As Basilov notes, despite the fact that shamanism and its practices were outlawed by the Islamic Shari’a, Central Asians quite interestingly incorporated many ideas and practices of Sufism. This kind of religious syncretism, however, is not unique to the Muslims of Central Asia. Studies of religious syncretism in many peripheral Muslim countries show that “the more iconic practices of Islam—such as abstaining from eating pork, attending communal prayer, and observing Ramadan—coexist with an open invocation of the ancestors, magic and sorcery. In some places pilgrimage to sacred places is regarded as an acceptable substitute for the hajj, which is seen being seen as an Arab custom not required of “true” Muslims.” 139 In other words, Central Asian Islamic culture is different from other Muslim regions of the world in its distinct integration of native beliefs and practices. The coexistence of Islamic and native beliefs or their more “liberal” attitude to Islam might be one reason for calling the nomadic Kazakhs and Kyrgyz “nominal Muslims.” The Kazakhs and Kyrgyz are not likely to be offended if they are called nominal Muslims, for they themselves are aware of the fact that they do not observe basic rules of Islam as strictly as in other countries. For example, the consumption of alcohol is forbidden in Islam but the majority of Central Asians drink alcohol (this is mainly a legacy of 139 Lawrence, B. Bruce, “The Eastward Journey o f Muslim Kingship.” In: Oxford History o f Islam. Edited by John, L. Esposito. Oxford University Press, 1999. p. 427. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 Soviet/Russian rule). However, even before the introduction of vodka, people drank the ancient drink koumiss, fermented mare’s milk. If consumed in large quantities koumiss has an intoxicating effect. The Muslim clergy did not or could not outlaw this drink among the nomadic Kyrgyz and Kazakhs because it was their only seasonal summer drink in the mountains and, moreover, it also has many health benefits. As another example, according to Islamic burial traditions, a person should be buried within twenty- four hours after his/her death, but the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz do not obey this rule; they keep the body at least one day, and in some cases two days, to wait for close family members to arrive. Islamic customs are usually applied to “formal” ceremonies such as rites of passage (marriage, circumcision, funeral rites, the latter will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5). In sum, in interpreting Central Asian religious beliefs and customs one should always take into account the socio-cultural environment or context, i.e., nomadic or sedentary, under which they were developed and practiced. In this way we will get a fuller picture of peoples’ religious lives, both Islamic and pre-Islamic. The first did not fully replace the latter for many socio-economic and ecological reasons. We need to ask which aspects of Islam were suitable for nomadic life and culture and which aspects of it were not? How did the nomadic people contextualize this foreign religion and integrate into their own culture and worldview? Caroline Humphrey studies Inner Asian shamanism and its practices. Although she mostly deals with shamanism as practiced among various nomadic Mongols such as the Daurs and Buryats, her recent research findings on shamanism provide valuable information to the understanding of the connection between Central Asian Turkic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
155 shamanism and south Siberian shamanism, the latter being practiced by Mongols, Buryats, Daurs, Altays and Teleuts. While DeWeese argues against the notion of nominal nomadic Muslims, the authors Humphrey and Onon argue against another common notion about the existence of a unified homogeneous shamanism in Inner Asia. Most of their discussion about various aspects of shamanism and its usage by the Daur Mongols can be applied to the case of the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz and even to that of the Uzbeks and Turkmens who gave up most of their shamanic heritage for Islam. Humphrey and Onon try to explore and expose the diversity of shamanism which, according to the authors, was practiced not just by one kind of shaman, but by several kinds of shamans, each specializing in various healing practices associated with different parts and kinds of the body and sicknesses. There was and still is no single shaman who is able to conduct all spiritual services and healing functions for the people. For example, the terms now used for various shamans are otochi (curer), barishi (bone-setter), bariyachi, (midwife), kiyanchi (sorcerer).140 These specialists are also known with similar names among the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz. The kiyanchi would be equal to the yaychi(s) or storm causers mentioned in 13th -14th century accounts of western travellers. In some rural areas of Central Asia, if someone breaks a bone, he/she goes to a si'nikchi (bone setter). There are not many left today. Privratrsky and other scholars like Humphrey are right in their assertion that shamans did not play a central role in people’s everyday religious and spiritual life but participated at specific rituals such as healing the sick. It is not only western scholars who are finding the term shamanism irrelevant to describe the native beliefs of Turkic peoples,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 today many native scholars and intellectuals also opposing to the idea of using the term and proposing a different term, Tengirchilik, which will be discussed in Chapter 6. As one of the leading scholars of Central Asian religious history Devin DeWeese notes “Like many other “aboriginal” religions, Central or Inner Asian native religion values “life” and “health” and most of their ritual practices involve “life-sustaining activities” which in turn requires the “crisis intervention” on the part of healers such as shamans.141 Unfortunately, as mentioned above, many scholars, by incorrectly calling the Inner Asian religion “shamanism,” place the shaman and his/her ritual and healing activities in the very center of the Central/Inner Asian system of beliefs. Today, this view has lost its significance. New work by Caroline Humphrey, Urgunge Onon, Devin DeWeese and Kazakh and Kyrgyz scholars show that the “distinctive” and main focus of Inner Asian religious life is not the shaman, but “the communal and ancestral aspects” which make life possible.142 One of the main characteristics of the shamanic religion is the supreme God, called Tengri or Kok, Blue Sky. We find in Central Asian epics many references to Tenri (Kr. Tengir). Blessings such as Tengir koldosun or Tengir jalgasin (May Tengri support or bless you!) are still used by some elderly Kyrgyz. One of the powerful curses used in Kyrgyz epics as well as in ordinary life was the expression “Toshii tuktiiu jer ursun,
blue Sky with an open top!”] Here the Earth is likened to a human being as having a hairy chest: the trees or forests of Earth are considered the hair and the Sky is viewed as having
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 157 no top. This popular curse in Central Asian oral literature clearly reflects people’s ancient cosmology which holds Earth and Sky to be gods. As Omiiraliev points out, the belief in one and only God was not new to the Central Asian nomadic peoples, but the idea of the Prophet was. The nomadic peoples also believed in the existence of one God and they had a name for it Tangri/Tengir (See Chapter 6). The physical presence of Islam reflected in mosques and madrasahs was missing in the steppes and mountains. Almost everything they did in their life depended on their livestock. They never stayed in one location for more than one or two months, but moved constantly from pasture to pasture in search of new grazing land. This factor alone prevented building mosques and madrasahs in the mountains. Despite differences in urban/rural settings, belief in Tangri aided islamization. Recent ethnographic studies of Inner Asian religion have focused on another aspect of Inner Asian indigenous religion: the spirits of nature, mountains, trees, lakes and rivers. Many such sites are believed to be places where a human’s, especially a shaman’s death had occurred. This makes them sacred places to pray for the spirits of the dead, which are said to have become master spirits of certain mountains or trees.143 In Inner Asia not just any mountain, tree or spring can be worshipped by people. The sites for worship are usually unusual places such as a lonely tree on a hilltop or in a valley or near a river or spring. Today, people who are facing personal problems, such as infertility or mental illness, continue to visit such sacred places including the mazars of Sufi saints to ask for their blessing and cure. They tie pieces of clothes to lonely trees and circle around the tree three times; those who can afford it usually sacrifice a sheep or goat to the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 158 spirits. Clearly, there was an existing cultural context for adopting a new and similar religious practice, such as the worship of Sufi saints and their mazars, shrines. One explicit legacy of Sufism among the Central Asians is the practice of ziyarat, which in Arabic means “a visit for the purpose of giving greetings” and its association with the Muslim/Sufi saints, their tomb/shrine and similar sacred places with unusual landscapes.144 In Sufi tradition, ziyarat was carried out by disciples of a Sufi pir, saint/master. There are many holy places, including the shrines of famous Sufi saints such as Bahauddin Naqshbandi in Bukhara and Qoja Ahmad Yasawi in Turkestan. Many place names carry the Turkic word ata or baba (father/ancestor) attached to the name of saints such as Arslan Bab(a), Qili'shti Ata, Ukasha Ata, Qumshi'q Ata, Al-Qoja Ata, Qussh'f Ata, and Oluya Ata in Kazakhstan), Kochkor Ata, Padisha-Ata, Iman-Ata, Cholpon Ata, Shudiigor Ata, etc. in Kyrgystan. In other words, as Privratsky notes
the saints and shrines are inseparable from the ancestor cult.”145 “And this association of two types of ancestors is one of the keys to understanding Kazakh or Central Asian religion.”146 Islam in the Soviet Period. The Islamization process of the nomadic Kyrgyz and Kazakhs, which had been going on before, ceased soon after the Soviets established their rule in the region. During
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 the 1930’s the Soviets forced the nomadic Kyrgyz and Kazakhs to become sedentary and to adopt the new Soviet life and secular/atheist education. After WWII, all religious sites of worship and activities, both Islamic and Christian, such as mosques, churches, and mazars (shrines) were under strict state control. On November 28, 1958, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the USSR issued a decree “About Taking Measures to Eliminate the Pilgrimages to so- called “Sacred Places.” The Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kyrgyzstan (Kirgiziia) received regularly official reports from every raykoms (regional committee) and gorkoms (city committee). In his report sent to Comrade A. A. Nurullaev, Head of the Department of Religious Affairs under the Ministry of Counsel of USSR, S. Vishnyakov, Vice Councelor on Religious Affairs of Kyrgyz SSR writes: As a result of the above taken measures, the number of the active “sacred places” and the pilgrimages to them have been decreased. Until 1958, i.e., before the well-known decree of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, there were about 300 “sacred places” on the territory of Kyrgyzstan,. . . today only 10 “sacred places” remain and the number of pilgrims decreased 9-10 times.”147 For example, in 1967, during the month of August, about 2500 pilgrims came on a daily basis to the “sacred place” Taht-i-Suleyman in the city of Osh; in 1971, about 350 pilgrims visited the site, however in 1972 only about 200 people came. The similar situation applies to other religious places of worship such as Ayup-Paygambar [located on the Jalal- Abad resort in southern Kyrgyzstan].148 However, some “sacred places,” such as “Tahti-Sulayman,” “Sahabalar,” “Ashir-Ata,” “Khoja-Bilyar,” “Arslanbob,” “Ayup Paygambar,” “Shah-Fazil,” “Dul-Dul Ata,” “Idiris Paygambar,” “Pacha- Ata” are still attracting large number of peoples.... Due to the lack of control by the local authorities, sheikhs, mullahs and other representatives Download 2.95 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling