Fundamentals of food technology study manual

Figure 16 
Bread is the main food product. Bread is mainly a carbohydrate food, which 
does not meet the required optimal ratio (4:1). The nutritional value of bread is 
evaluated by its caloric content, digestibility, amount and composition of protein, 
vitamins and minerals. Nutrients contained in bread cannot be completely digested 
by the human body. The digestibility of bread is affected by its porosity, taste, 
appearance, its type and other factors. The higher its grade, the better its nutrients, 
especially protein, are digested. 1 kg of bread contains 70-80 g of protein, which 
covers about 30% of the human need for protein. The total amount of mineral 
substances in bread is 1-2%. The lower the quality of the flour, the higher the 
amount of minerals in the bread. Vitamins are also more common in jaidari flour 
than in high-quality flour. For example, 550 g of bread prepared from rye and 
wheat jaidari fully satisfies the human body's need for vitamins, 2.3 parts of 
vitamin B1, 1.6 parts of vitamin B2. 
Organoleptic (appearance, taste, smell, state of the core) and physico-
chemical (moisture, acidity, porosity, fat and sugar content) quality indicators of 
bread and bread products are of the first level, because if the product is found to be 
of poor quality according to organoleptic indicators, the product is considered to be 
unfit and further analysis is not carried out. 
Bread moisture is an important indicator of its quality. The calorie content of 
the product, the condition of the core, the yield and shelf life of the bread depend 
on its moisture content. Moisture standards are set for each product. Currently, 
more than 300 types of products are produced in the bread industry enterprises of 
the republic. In recent years, in order to improve the health of the population's diet, 
various additives have been added to bread products, and medicinal, dietary breads 

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have been produced. These include breads made with vegetables, fruit juices, iron, 
proteins, bran, oat flour, rye flour, whey, improvers and other additives. 
Raw materials used in the preparation of bread and bakery products are 
divided into two: basic and additional raw materials. The main raw materials are 
flour, water, yeast and salt. 
Additional raw materials include sugar, fat, oil, products, raw materials 
specified in the egg milk recipe. 
Wheat flour is a powdery substance obtained by grinding wheat grains in a 
mill. High, I and II grade flours are used in the preparation of bakery products, and 
all types of dough are made from such flours. Its moisture is of great importance in 
preserving it and in preparing products from it. According to the standard, the 
moisture content of flour should not exceed 14.5%. All product recipes are 
designed for this humidity. 
1. Properties of flour in baking: 
2. The color of the flour and the change in color during the bread making 
process; 
3. Rheological properties of dough, flour strength, quantity and quality of 
gluten; 
4. Its ability to absorb water; 
5. Its gas-forming property; 
6. Its autolytic activity; 
The color of the flour varies depending on the type of flour. The lower the 
quality of the flour, the darker its color. The color of the flour is determined by the 
soft part of the bread. 
Flour strength is a conditional term that describes the gluten content of the 
dough. Rheological properties of dough include: elasticity, plasticity, hardness and 
binding (viscosity). Based on this, flour is classified as strong, medium and weak. 
Strong flour contains more protein. Gliadin and glutenin proteins form gluten. 
Water. It is the main raw material in the production of bread and pasta 
products. Raw water is used in the preparation of all kiyamas and most pastry 
masses. Drinking water is used in the preparation of food products. Enterprises are 
supplied with drinking water. In the absence of this possibility, local water sources 
are used with the permission of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Control 
Organizations. 
The quality of water, regardless of its source, must meet the requirements of 
the standard (GOST2874). It must be clear, colorless, tasteless and odorless. 
The amount of calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in water indicates the 
"water hardness". Water hardness is expressed by milligram equivalents of calcium 
or magnesium in 1 liter of water. 
According to the hardness index (mg-equiv/l), water is divided into the 
following groups: up to 1.5 very soft; 1.5-3 soft; 3-6 is a little hard; 6-9 hard above 
9 is very hard. Water from different sources has different hardness. Hardness of 
drinking water up to 7 mg-eq/l may be allowed. 
Although the high degree of hardness of water has a negative effect on steam 
boilers, pipes and other purposes, it is not harmful in the preparation of dough. 

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Calcium and magnesium salts strengthen the properties of gluten, that is, they 
improve the properties of dough made from weak flour, and the quality of finished 
bread. 
Worrying. Pressed yeast, dried yeast, liquid yeast and fermented milk are used 
in baking. Yeast is a microorganism consisting of round, egg-shaped tissues 
belonging to the class Saccharomyces. Dry food contains 44-67% protein, 6-8% 
minerals, 30% carbohydrates, vitamins and enzymes. Yeasts contain a number of 
enzymatic complexes, the main of which is called zymase. This substance ferments 
the sugar in the yeast, producing ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide (SO2). 
According to this property, the dough undergoes a baking process. Favorable 
conditions for fermentation microorganisms are 26-28 0 С, 45-500 С, tissue 
reproduction stops and it goes into the state of anabiosis (numbness). 
The sourness of pressed yeast is 120-360 ml/g (in acetic acid unit), humidity 
is 75%, the rising power is up to 76 minutes, the yeast retains its properties at 6-8 0 
С. In production, frozen yeast is used thawed from ice (at room temperature). As 
feed for pressed yeast, waste from the sugar industry is used in molasses. Molasses 
has a dark, liquid consistency and consists of 45-50% sucrose, 12% nitrogenous 
compounds, and 10% mineral substances. 
Salt. Table salt is a mixture of NaCl and small amounts of other mineral salts. 
Table salt is divided into 4 types according to the amount of impurities in it: extra, 
high, type 1, type 2, iodized salt is also produced. The amount of NaCl should not 
be less than 97-99.5%, the precipitation of dry substances insoluble in water should 
not exceed 0.03-0.85%, and the humidity should be around 5-6%. According to the 
processing method, salt is divided into fine crystal, ground and unground salt. 1 
and 2 types of ground salt are used in the production of bakery products. Salt is 
mainly used in the form of a 26-28% solution. 
Salt improves the mechanical properties of the structure of the dough and the 
taste of the product, reduces the activity of enzymes. At the same time, by slowing 
down the activity of yeast, semi-finished products slow down the fermentation 
process. 
Quality indicators of salt are checked by organoleptic and physico-chemical 
methods. 
We will consider additional raw materials below. 
Sugar. Sugar contains 99.7% sucrose and 0.14% moisture. It is completely 
soluble in water, does not have an oily taste or smell, has a sweet taste, and is dry 
to the touch. Since sugar absorbs moisture, it should be stored in a dry, ventilated 
room with a relative humidity of 70% or less, otherwise the sugar will absorb 
moisture and become sticky and lumpy. 
Sugar adds flavor to bakery products made from it, increases their satiety and 
changes the structure of the dough. Sugar limits the swelling of the gluten, thereby 
reducing its water-holding capacity and reducing the stickiness of the dough. 
Dairy products. In terms of nutritional value, no product can replace milk. 
That is why milk is considered a wonderful food created by nature. Milk and dairy 
products are easily and easily absorbed by the human body. 

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Milk protein consists of complete amino acids. Milk contains 2-4% casein, 
0.1% globulin and 91% other proteins. 
Cream is obtained in the process of separating milk into cream and skim milk 
using separators. 
In addition to fat, the cream contains 2.5-3.4% protein, 3.0-4.2% lactose, and 
0.4-0.6% mineral substances. The more fat it has, the less other ingredients it 
contains. 
The real part of the cream is sent for the production of sour cream and butter, 
and the cream with a fat content of 10-20% is sent for direct consumption. The fact 
that the cream increases in volume due to the formation of foam during churning is 
used in the confectionery industry. 
The cream should be yellowish white in color. The consistency should be 
homogeneous, without fat and protein lumps, with taste, clean. The acidity of 
cream with a fat content of 10% is from 19 0T, and the acidity of cream with a fat 
content of 20.18 and 35% is 17 0T should not exceed 
The properties and good storage of canned milk allow you to use them in 
direct food, bread, confectionery and pasta products. 
Dry milk and cream are prepared in two ways: thin-clay and spray. 
Dry milk products include natural and skimmed dry cow's milk, dry cream, 
etc. Dry milk products consist of a white, yellowish powder with a clean smell and 
taste characteristic of the smell and taste of pasteurized milk. The moisture content 
of dry milk and its products should not exceed 4-5% in hermetic packaging and 7% 
in non-hermetic packaging. 
In the bakery and confectionery industry, whey and various products made 
from it are used as raw materials. Whey is a secondary product of curd and cheese 
production. It is a light yellow liquid with a characteristic sour taste and smell. 
Margarine. Margarine is basically a mixture of several types of fat, which is 
made by adding cream, milk or water to animal and vegetable fats. It is close to 
butter in terms of taste and smell. Milk and cream margarines are used in industry. 
Margarine is brought to the enterprise in barrels or boxes. The shelf life of 
margarine is 45 days at a temperature of 4-10 0 С, 60 days at 0-4 0 С and 75 days 
at a temperature below 0 0 С. The shelf life of liquid margarine is 2 days. 
Egg products. Eggs are a very nutritious, energetic food that contains proteins, 
fats, minerals and other substances. Eggs, with their properties, awaken the taste of 
products, making them fluffy and flawless. Egg protein has astringent properties, 
creates a good foam, holds juice. 
Malt and malt preparations. Malt is grain harvested under artificial conditions 
at a certain temperature and humidity. The process of artificially harvesting grain is 
called malting. The extracted product is called fresh malt and it is then dried and 
converted into dry malt. Barley and rye grains are mainly used for making malt. 
Dried fermented (red) and unfermented (white) rye malt is made from rye 
grains, and white and black, caramelized and burnt barley malt are used to make 
beer from barley. In baking, fermented (red) and unfermented (white) rye malt is 
used. 

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Starch and feed products. Starch is the main reserve substance that 
accumulates in the seeds, pods or roots of plants. Its chemical composition is 
starch polysaccharide, the basis of its structure is glucose residues. Therefore, 
starch is broken down into hydrolyzed glucose and is almost completely absorbed 
by the body. A person's daily need for starch is 400-500g. The amount of starch 
that enters the body with food meets half of a person's energy needs. 
Edible fats and oils. Vegetable oils and fats obtained from animal tissues are 
usually not chemically pure. They are a very complex mixture, in which oils are 
the main part, and other components are called a mixture of oils or a sum of fatty 
substances. 
Plants accumulate lipids mainly in fruits and seeds. In animals and fish, fat 
accumulates in subcutaneous tissues surrounding vital organs. Depending on the 
source of raw materials, oils are vegetable, animal and combined, depending on 
their consistency they are liquid. Combined fats are fats obtained by mixing 
animal, vegetable and hydrogenated fats. These are margarine, cooking and special 
oils. 
The first stage - covers the reception and storage of dry or molten raw 
materials coming to enterprises in warehouses and containers under certain 
conditions. Flour is brought to the bakery in flour transport machines equipped 
with compressors and is taken to special silos. Here the flour is stored and matured 
for 7 days. Other raw materials, such as salt, are brought to small bakeries whole, 
melted in special three-section tanks, cooled for a certain period, filtered and stored 
in liquid form. The concentration of the salt solution should be -26% density -1.19 
g/l. 
Pressed yeasts are brought in boxes and stored in freezers for 3 days at a 
temperature of 0-4 0 С. Sugar is brought to the bakery dry in sacks and melted and 
heated in tanks with a density of 1, 2, 3. Then it is poured into stainless steel 
containers and kept in solution. 
Margarine and other oils are supplied in boxes and tankers in containers with 
a special mixer and heating coating that maintains a certain level. 
The second stage is the preparation of raw materials for production. The 
stored flour is passed through the "Vinklar" brand sifter, which consists of a sieve 
and a magnet, which removes various impurities and metal particles. To increase 
fermentation, the broth is prepared in special containers and raised at a temperature 
of 30 0 С for 1-2 hours. Sugar production is stopped. The remaining raw materials 
are also washed and cleaned and brought to production. 
The third stage is preparation of dough. Dough preparation is an important 
process in the production of bread products, and the next technological stages and 
the quality of bread directly depend on this process. The main purpose of the 
dough is to mix a certain amount of flour, water, yeast, salt and other components 
to form a homogeneous mixture. The process of dough preparation is carried out in 
a "Winkler" dough kneading machine. Water for kneading the dough is transferred 
to the deja (dough kneading pot) through a dispenser. The remaining raw materials 
are covered with specially sized buckets. The dough is intensively mixed for 10 
minutes. 

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When preparing the dough, it is tried to create good conditions for it to rise. 
The dough is increased to make a sweet-tasting, well-porous bread. Dough is 
raised in three different ways: biochemical, chemical and mechanical methods. In 
the biochemical method, yeasts are added to the dough, which break down sugars 
in the dough into alcohol and carbon IV-oxide. 
In the chemical method, baking soda, ammonium carbonate salt and other 
additives are added to the dough. During cooking, they decompose under the 
influence of high temperature and form carbon IV-oxide, which increases the 
dough. In the mechanical method, the dough is kept under the pressure of carbon 
IV-oxide gas in a special device. In this process, the hollow dough mass is shaped 
and sent for baking. 
The fourth stage is the process of dividing the dough, which includes the 
processes of folding the dough, giving it a shape, and resting it for a certain period 
of time. The MAK-3 dough dividing machine of the company "Winkler" gives the 
dough to the dough balls of the specified weight. The weight of the dough is 
determined based on the weight of the finished product, taking into account the 
weight loss of bread products during baking. 
The pieces of dough are brought into a spherical shape, after which the final 
shape is given. Some bread products are shaped in special devices. 
The formed pieces of dough are rested, and the gas created by the continuous 
baking of the dough serves to make the dough porous and increase in size. A 
temperature of 35-40 0 С and a relative humidity of 75-85% are favorable 
conditions for the curing process. The search process is carried out in special 
cameras.
The fifth stage is the baking process, in which the dough becomes a finished 
bread product. The purpose of cooking is to transform the dough into a digestible 
product. The purpose of cooking is to turn the dough into a digestible product. It 
can be observed that the cooking process rises a certain amount in the first minutes. 
This process occurs through the penetration of heat between the layers of dough. 
At the initial stage of temperature increase in the inner layers of the brain, it causes 
the formation of a large amount of carbon dioxide gas by yeasts. When the 
temperature reaches 55 0 С, the life activity of yeast stops. The upper part of the 
dough pieces heats up quickly in the oven, and the fermenting microorganisms in 
this layer die immediately, starch grains are clustered, proteins are denatured. 
When the temperature reaches 100 0 С, moisture starts to evaporate from the 
dough. It is explained by the hardening of the upper part, the evaporation of a large 
amount of moisture in it. The change in color of the upper part is the result of 
chemical processes taking place in it. As the dough temperature increases, sterins 
are formed from the pasteurized starch, for example, at 110-120 0 С, light yellow 
dextrins are formed, at 120-140 0 С, brown dextrins are formed. 
Caramelization of sugars occurs when the temperature is 140-150 0 С. At 
150-200 0 С, dark colored substances - melanoids are formed as a result of the 
interaction of proteins and sugars in the upper part of the bread. Melanoids are 
substances that give the taste and aroma of bread products. 

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The formation of a hard surface of bread makes it difficult for heat to reach 
the core, because it is a poor conductor of heat. Even if the cooking time is 
extended, the temperature of the core of the bread does not exceed 100 0 С. 
When the temperature reaches 60 0 С, the process of deaturation of protein 
substances (swertvania) begins. In this case, water is released from the protein 
molecule, and the water is absorbed by the cloistered starch. Thus, due to the 
cooking process, a bread core is formed, which has a strong framework consisting 
of starch granules and proteins with a changed structure. The alcohol formed as a 
result of chemical changes reacts with the acids in the dough and turns into ethers 
that give the bread a pleasant taste and aroma. 
For each type of bread, a cooking mode is defined, which is characterized by 
the duration of cooking and the relative humidity in the chamber. The taste and 
aroma of the bread depends primarily on the duration of cooking and the rate at 
which the dough is heated in the oven. The duration of cooking depends on the 
weight and shape of the products, the temperature regime, the density of the dough 
pieces and other factors. 
The sixth stage covers the processes of product storage and shipment to sales 
counters. Baked in the oven, the loaves are transferred to the circulation tables by 
belt conveyors, from where the loaves are placed on wooden trays. These trays are 
moved and placed on trolleys, and the bread products on the trolleys are stored in 
bread storage warehouses until they are sent to retail chains. Requirements for 
packaging, storage and shipping of bakery products are defined in standard norms. 
The period of storage of manufactured bread products at the enterprise is 
determined, in which it is important to keep the bread fresh. The storage period 
lasts from the time it comes out of the oven until it is sent to "Hot Bread" stores. 
Bread products that have passed their shelf life in a factory or store are considered 
waste and are processed to obtain products such as talc and sukhari flour. 
As a result of the cooling of hot baked bread, weight loss is observed (drying 
is observed, that is, a part of the product's moisture evaporates, leading to a 
decrease in weight. Weight loss is determined by the difference between the 
weights of hot bread and cooled bread. This process increases the moisture content 
of the product and continues until the relative humidity of the air in the 
environment is balanced.Depending on the type of product and the conditions of 
storage, weight loss in bakery products is 1-3%. 
During storage, the upper part of the bread hardens. After a few hours of 
baking, the tops of the bread go from a firm, crumbly state to a soft, elastic state. 
The masculinity of the bread dough decreases, the friction increases. This process 
takes place intensively when bakery products are kept at a temperature of 0-25 0 С. 
Lowering the temperature to 70 С slows down this process. Keeping bread 
products fresh is important. Due to the fact that bread production enterprises work 
continuously day and night, bread products prepared in the evening shift reach 
customers after 10-12 hours. Therefore, to keep them fresh, packing them in 
polyethylene bags is widely practiced today. 

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The polyethylene bag helps to preserve the freshness, taste, aroma and 
softness of the bread for 2-3 days. Packaging materials for bakery products should 
have a certain strength, be inert, harmless to the products. 
Types of cookies and their preparation. 
Confectionery with flour includes cookies, pancakes, waffles, cakes, cakes, 
cupcakes. There are about 700 types of these products. 
Biscuits are characterized by different shapes, high calories, low moisture, 
added sugar and fat. Three types of cookies are produced: 
- sugary; 
- prepared by stretching the dough; 
- extra sugar cookies are made from spreadable dough. 
- it is characterized by porous, fineness, good absorption in water. 
Biscuits with ribbons are made from hard, elastic dough, porous, less delicate, 
less watery. The dough is kneaded in universal machines with Z-shaped shovels. 
The duration of kneading sugar cookies is 25 minutes, and for cookies made 
by stretching the dough, it takes 30-60 minutes. Biscuits are baked in tonneau, belt 
ovens. 
Duration of cooking is 4-5 minutes, oven temperature is 240-270 degrees. 
The shelf life of packaged cookies is 3 months. 
Production of waffles. 
Waffle is a product consisting of thin, light porous layers. 
Waffles contain 21-27% sugar, 6.9-91.8% fat, and the nutritional value is 
1431-2218 kJ. The technological process of making waffles is as follows: 
1. Preparation of waffle sheets 
2. Preparation of Nachinka. 
Raw materials for waffle sheets: flour (32% gluten), sugar, oil, emulsion, 
aromatic additives. Dough is made in non-stop mechanized lines, kneading, 
whipping, machines. First, an aqueous emulsion is prepared by adding eggs, 
vegetable oil, salt, chemical softeners, phosphates, and a liquid slurry dough is 
prepared by stirring. The finished dough is baked in an electric waffle maker 
consisting of 2 metal plates. The dough is thinly spread on the corrugated holes of 
the sheets and baked between 2 plates at a temperature of 150-170 degrees for 2-4 
minutes. The prepared sheets are cooled separately for 30-35 minutes and then they 
are carefully applied. Nachinkalari - oily, fruity, prolaminous and others. 
More oily nachinka is used. Fatty nachinka-confectionery oil, wafer crumbs, 
powdered sugar, organic acids, food essence are prepared by foaming phosphotites. 
Freshly coated waffle sheets are left to soak for 5-6 hours. Then it is cut into 3 
sheets with a thickness of 30 mm on cutting machines. 
The product is stored in clean, dry warehouses with a temperature of 18 
degrees and a relative humidity of 65-70%. Wafers with oil are stored for 2 
months, waffles with flakes are stored for 1 month, waffles without flakes are 
stored for 3 months. Wafer quality requirements: sizes-up to 140mm for 
rectangular wafers with flakes, width 70mm, thickness of wafers without flakes up 
to 10mm. The color is light yellow to brown, the taste and smell are characteristic, 

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old oil, no taste. Appearance - the picture on the surface should be clear, the wafer 
should not flow from the edge. 
The moisture content of wafers is -0.5-13.3%. 
Waffles without chips are 2.5-3.9%. 
Production of snacks. 
Pryaniks are flour confectionery products. 
It is divided into 2 types according to the preparation method: 
Boiled dumplings; 
Pryaniks made by cold method. 
Pryaniks prepared in each method are prepared without and with nankhin. 
Sugar syrup, chocolate glaze, walnut seeds are sprinkled on it.