Grammatical Cohesion sakar, H. Ali m. A. Student / elt cohesion The linguistic features

Endophoric reference points to the textual environment of a given element can be either anaphoric or cataphoric. Brown and Yule (1983: 192) point that “where their interpretation lies within a text they are called „endophoric‟ relations and do from cohesive ties within the text”. • Anaphoric reference is a form of presupposition and means that a reference item points back to something that has gone before (Schubert 2008:33).  Such an instance of anaphoric reference in which “he” refers back to “John” in the preceding sentence.  John goes fishing every other week. He is a very good fisherman.

Cataphoric reference, as oppositional term to anaphoric reference, works the other way around. Here, a usually abstract reference item points forward to a specific element within the subsequent text for its interpretation.  In this sentence for example the reader has to look at the whole sentence to make sense of the second word “it” which refers to the specific item “watch” at the end.  There it is, my so much admired watch.

Personal reference is the reference by means of function in the speech situation, through category person (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 37). The examples of the personal can be the words “he”, “she”, “they”

demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on scale of proximity (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 37). The examples of demonstrative reference are the words “this”, “that”, “those” , “these”.

comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 37). (same, other) The examples of comparative reference are the phrase “such similar”, so similarity”, “other different else”

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was a fifteenth-century Italian genius who produced only a handful of finished artworks. However, they include Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, the former perhaps the most famous painting in the world. Although he is remembered mainly as an artist, he was also an innovative engineer, scientist and anatomist. His designs include tanks and flying machines, and although few of these were built in his lifetime, he is still remembered as the man who saw their possibility. Here, the reference words function as follows: Leonardo da Vinci finished artworks Mona Lisa designs He/His they the former these/their