International and Cultural Psychology For other titles published in this series, go to
Download 3.52 Kb. Pdf ko'rish
|
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- Emotion in Anthropology and Psychology
- Chapter 6 A Process Model of Desire
- Anchoring Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in Desire
- A General Model of Psychological Processes and Desire
- “When I pushed forward, I was whirled about. When I stayed in place, I sank. And so I crossed the flood without pushing forward
Figure 5.3 Ecological factors, social self, and self-efficacy 108 5 The Paths of Bondage and Liberation the dissolution of the social self, as the model posits, then to advance on the spiritual path one has to get rid of these elements of self-efficacy. In other words, the self-efficacy that makes us so effective in the material world may become a burden while pursuing a spiritual journey. In Indian philosophy, ego has been considered a major hurdle in one’s spiritual advancement, and part of the challenge in making spiritual progress is to be able to get rid of the sense of agency, and self-efficacy is nothing but innumerable aspects of that ego and being an agent in countless situa- tions over the duration of one’s life. Whereas in the context of self-efficacy or social cognition theory, the model may seem like a mere theoretical conjecture, in the context of this model, self-efficacy is limited to people pursuing Path 1. It is also not clear how self-efficacy would be conceptualized for people who believe that they have a metaphysical self over and above the physical and social selves. Can self- efficacy be divided into two categories, one set for the outer world (for the expanding social self), which would capture the conceptualization presented by Bandura and colleagues, and the other for the inner world (the shrinking social self), which is likely to be found in India? If so, research needs to explore how people develop this new type of self-efficacy not addressed in the literature. Applying self-efficacy theory to people following Path 2 raises some other interesting questions. According to self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977), though self-efficacy can be altered by bogus feedback unrelated to one’s performance or by bogus normative comparison, performance accomplishment is the most reliable way of boosting self-efficacy. Therefore, those following Path 2 must have necessarily acquired their self-efficacy through the practice of “not paying attention to the fruits of their effort.” But this skill is not readily available to model in the society, since most people follow Path 1. Therefore, it is plausible that this mindset is acquired vicari- ously first, by simply getting the concept cognitively, and then through self-exper- imentation with the idea. Path 2 may, therefore, offer some interesting insights into the process of self-efficacy development, especially as it pertains to spiritual self- growth, which has not been hitherto thought about. Another issue related to self-efficacy deals with social learning theory (Bandura, 1986). The self-efficacy that we can perform a task or act in a certain way is devel- oped through actively performing a task or modeling a social behavior, which is applicable to human behaviors while following Path 1 (see Figure 5.1 ). It makes intui- tive sense that as people make progress on Path 2, they are also likely to develop a self-efficacy in performing their dharma or duties without pursuing the fruits of their effort. But this efficacy is developed by constantly watching oneself, and in that sense it is self-learning rather than social learning. An experienced guru or mentor could provide insightful feedback when one is confused, but still the decisions have to be made by people based totally on their personal experience. Thus, social learning theory may not work for self-learning, and the link between self-efficacy and social learning theory, which is so well established for Path 1, does not seem to work for Path 2, and thus questions the generalizability of the theory to the domain of spiritual learning and growth. Also, dharma seems to guide people in dealing with their inter- dependent concept of self as opposed to what is referrred to as collective self-efficacy in western psychology (see Figure 5.3 ). This too is a unique contribution of the model to global psychology. 109 Implications for Global Psychology Finally, according to self-efficacy theory, the higher the perceived self-efficacy, the longer the individuals persevere on difficult and unsolvable problems before they quit. Also, the stronger the perceived self-efficacy, the higher the goals people set for themselves and the firmer their commitment to them. Path 2 is intuitively more difficult than Path 1, as the spiritual path has been compared to “walking on the razor’s edge (Maugham, 1944).” Therefore, those pursuing Path 2 are likely to have a much higher self-efficacy in letting go of the fruits of their effort than those following Path 1. One of the attributes of spiritually inclined people Pursuing Path 2 is the higher degree of detachment (vairAgya) from material entities around them. Therefore, it is quite likely that detachment from material entities is closely associ- ated with spiritual self-efficacy, which has not been hitherto thought about. It is also plausible that this higher level of self-efficacy, a form of spiritual self-efficacy, helps spiritual leaders like Gandhi, Martin Luther King, and Mother Teresa to address challenging and serious social problems that are chronic. These leaders with spiritual self-efficacy are clearly much more persistent than the garden variety of politicians whose job it is to solve social problems. Thus, future research needs to address the construct of spiritual self-efficacy. The model also raises questions about what we know about goal setting. In the light of current knowledge about goal setting, it is difficult to visualize how one may proceed to perform one’s work without concern for the fruits of his or her effort, lacking the basic motivation that is provided by goals (Locke, 1986). One who pursues Path 2 is likely to set goals to plan one’s day, week, or year, and then reschedule the next day, week, or year based on how much gets done, without either celebrating the success or expressing frustration about the failure. When working with the intention not to chase the fruits of our efforts, one enters a zone where goals are not important, and they lose their motivating potential. In such situations, the person becomes an observer of his or her own work and behavior (draSTA) rather than being an agent setting goals and taking actions (or kartA) to meet those goals. The model also has consequences for the concept of independent and interdepen- dent concepts of selves (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), which have come to shape major theories like individualism and collectivism (Bhawuk, 2001b; Triandis, 1995). As shown in Figure 5.3 , the social self includes both interdependent and independent concepts of selves, and as predicted individualists would have an independent con- cept of self and collectivists would have an interdependent concept of self. As col- lectivists, Indians are likely to have an interdependent concept of self, and be guided by their dharma in managing these relationships. However, in the Indian conceptu- alization of self, the self also extends to the metaphysical self (i.e., Atman), beyond the social self, and so an Indian is also likely to have an independent concept of self. Thus, there is a need to synthesize the dichotomy of independent and interdependent concept of self rather than view them as exclusive. The model also offers some value for practice as one can use the model for his or her personal growth and test its validity for oneself by reflecting on changes in life in terms of reduced attachment to various social selves, increase in felt calm- ness and peace, and a clear reduction in work and social stress. As a practitioner, based on my personal experience, I am comfortable stating that the model does seem to work. 110 5 The Paths of Bondage and Liberation To conclude, this chapter shows that it is possible to develop indigenous models from the philosophical traditions of a culture by starting with a non-Western model, instead of starting with the existing literature, to avoid imposed etic or pseudoetic approach guided by Western models and worldview. It is hoped that by developing models from other cultures of how people can lead a spiritual life, we will be able to enrich our understanding of cross-cultural similarities and differences in the pursuit of spirituality. This chapter contributes by attempting to show how for global-community psychology useful psychological models can be derived from indigenous psychology and further bolsters the idea that models can be derived from classical texts. The chapter raised many questions for the mainstream psychology and hopefully answers to these questions would facilitate the development of global-community psychology in the future. 111 D.P.S. Bhawuk, Spirituality and Indian Psychology, International and Cultural Psychology, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-8110-3_6, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 Psychologists have argued about the primacy of cognition and emotion for decades without any resolution. Deriving ideas from the bhagavadgItA, in this chapter, cognition, emotion, and behavior are examined by anchoring them in desire. The model presented here posits that cognition, emotion, and behavior derive signifi- cance when examined in the context of human desires, and starting with perception and volition, cognition emerges when a desire crystallizes. Desires lead to behav- iors, and the achievement or nonachievement of a desire causes positive or negative emotions. Through self-reflection, contemplation, and the practice of karmayoga desires can be better managed, which can help facilitate healthy management of emotions. It is hoped that insights provided by this model would stimulate research for further examination of the role of desire in understanding and predicting cogni- tion, emotion, and behavior. In this chapter, the literature on emotion is briefly reviewed to set the stage for the presentation of an indigenous model derived from the bhagavadgItA. By utilizing an ecological perspective, the model shows how the self interacts with the environment to develop cognition, emotion, and desire and how the self performs actions to achieve the desire leading to positive or negative effects. The generaliz- ability of the model is examined by testing how it fits with other Indian texts like pataJjali’s yogasutras and vedAntic texts like yogavAsiSTha and vivekcudAmaNi. Finally, implications of this model for global psychology and future research are discussed. Emotion in Anthropology and Psychology Emotion can be defined at the microbrain chemistry level as well as at a macropsy- chological construct level (Marsella, 1994). Measuring and studying emotion at both levels serve important functions. Cook and Campbell (1979) asserted that there is value in studying variables at the molar or macro level, despite the evidence that mediating variables are present at the micro level. This suggests there is value in studying emotions as psychological constructs (e.g., anger, and greed) as well as in understanding the brain chemistry of emotions. Borrowing the objective–subjective Chapter 6 A Process Model of Desire 112 6 A Process Model of Desire framework presented by Triandis (1972) in the study of culture, it could be argued that the physical symptoms of emotions are objective aspects of emotion (e.g., independent observers would agree to seeing tears in the eyes of a person), whereas the psychological elements constitute the subjective culture. Following the same principle that causation can be studied at a macro level despite our knowledge of how micro-level variables cause certain phenomena, the debate about the origin of emotion, whether it is biological first and then psycho- logical (Archer, 1979; Blanchard & Blanchard, 1984, 1988; Izard, 1972, 1991; James, 1890; Plutchik & Kellerman, 1986; Svare, 1983), is less rewarding. Having gone through thousands of years of socio-cultural change or “evolution,” it is quite meaningful to study emotions as shaped and moderated by cultural values and practices, albeit in the ecological context (Damasio, 1999; Wentworth & Yardley, 1994), and certainly, it is not of less value than the genetic makeup of our emotional expressions, which the proponents of evolutionary nature of emotion strongly adhere to (Wilson, 1984). Anthropologists have studied emotions as either a biological or a cultural phe- nomenon (Leavitt, 1996). Biologically, emotions are physical feelings, have evolu- tionary roots, and are therefore etics or universals. Culturally, emotions are socially constructed, their meaning transmitted from generation to generation through lan- guage and nonverbal communication, and thus are emics or culture specific. Leavitt (1996) posited that there was a need to synthesize both the feeling and meaning aspects of emotions, and this perspective is gaining support in anthropology (Lupton, 1998; Milton, 2005). Some researchers accept the dual nature of emotion; however, they assert the pri- macy of emotion as a social phenomenon (Hochschild, 1998; Lyon, 1998; Parkinson, 1995; Shweder, 1993; Williams, 2001). Much like ecological psychologists who stress the conjoint nature of behavior settings and behaviors (Barker, 1968), these researchers stress that emotions are a function of the socio-cultural contexts in which they arise, are expressed using cultural symbols, and are interpreted in the meaning system of the particular culture. In other words, the same physical feeling may be expressed (using different languages), interpreted (using different meaning systems), and dealt with (using different behaviors) differently across cultures. This has been further supported by cross-cultural psychologists (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 1994). Thus, there is merit in studying emotions in the socio-cultural context. Mishra (2005) reviewed the Indian literature on emotion and also presented an anthropological report on indigenous emotional concepts of rasa and bhAva. rasa means the sap or juice of plants, and by implication it refers to the essence or the best or finest of anything. In poetry and dramaturgy, rasa refers to the taste or char- acter of a work or the feeling or sentiment prevailing in it. The eight rasas are zRG gAr (love), vIra (heroism), bIbhatasa (disgust), raudra (anger or fury), hAsya (mirth), bhayAnaka (terror), karuNA (pity), and adbhuta (wonder). zAanta (tranquility or contentment) and vAtsalya (paternal fondness) are two other rasas that have been added to the list. bhAva translates as emotion and is of two types: sthAyin or primary and vyabhicArin or subordinate. sthAyin bhAvas refer to the same 8 (or 9 including zAnta) rasas, whereas the vyabhicArin are of 33 (or 34) types. Thus, though we find 113 Anchoring Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in Desire a typology of emotions in the Indian literature, much of the psychological research has not used them in any way in measurement or theory building. In this chapter, a more basic issue, the relationship between emotion, cognition, desire, and behavior is modeled, and it is hoped that future research would take advantage of the existing typology of emotion for further theory building. Anchoring Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in Desire In the second Canto of the bhagavadgItA, a process of how anger is generated is pre- sented, which is delineated in the 62nd verse. 1 When a person thinks about an object (or a subject), he or she develops an attachment for it. Attachment leads to desire, and from desire anger is manifested. The above process is captured in Figure 6.1 . As stated in the verse, and shown in the schematic diagram, through the pro- cess of perception, a person develops the cognition or thinks (dhyAyataH) about Figure 6.1 Desire as the locus of cognition, emotion, and behavior (adapted from Bhawuk, 2008c) 1 Verse 2.62: dhyAyato viSayAnpuMsaH saGgsteSupajAyate; saGgAtsaJjAyate kAmaH kAm Atkro dho’bhijAyate . 114 6 A Process Model of Desire an object. Constant thinking about the object leads to saGga (or attachment) to the object. Attachment clearly has an affective component, which is built on the cognitive component coming from the thinking or cognitive stage. Attachment is often found to be associated with an object, an idea, or a concept. Therefore, hav- ing a cognitive schema of such an object, idea, or concept is a precondition for attachment to develop. Thus, attachment has both cognitive and affective compo- nents. Attachment leads to desire (kAma) for the object. As a desire crystallizes, emotion and cognition become clear to the person, and in effect should be describable or measurable. Since the human mind is a thought factory that con- stantly churns out thoughts, thoughts in themselves may be difficult to measure and study. But those thoughts that lead to desires through attachment have impact on our behavioral intentions and future behavior. Thus, desire is plausibly the first significant psychological construct that leads to behavior (Bhawuk, 1999; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). Though not explicated in the verse, it is reasonable to postulate that desires lead to the setting of goals, which can be financial, academic, personal (e.g., health, how one looks, and so forth), etc., through which desires can be achieved. Thus, desires drive behavior, which is directed toward goals. The verse states that desires lead to anger. Clearly, if desires are not met as planned, we are likely to get angry. Though the verse posits that desires lead to anger, it seems reasonable that this happens only when desired outcomes are not achieved. It should be noted that unfulfilled desire does lead directly to anger in the interpersonal context. When we expect a certain behavior from somebody, we want that person to act in a certain way in a given context or situation. Interpersonal expectation clearly is a form of desire. When the person does not act as expected, oftentimes our knee-jerk response is an angry admonition, a firm warning where anger is socially shaped into an acceptable expression, or a simple sign of outrage as seen in honking of cars on American streets or freeways. Thus, often when desires are not met we do become angry, and this is aptly captured in the verse. The bhagavadgItA does not discuss what happens if the desires are fulfilled, but it makes intuitive sense that fulfillment of desires is likely to lead to a positive feel- ing, happiness, or joy. It seems reasonable that when goals are met, the person either moves on to something else or continues to pursue the behavior to obtain more of the same or something higher or better. In fact, in a verse in the third Canto of the bhagavadgItA, desires are compared to fire that is never satiated. 2 Therefore, in Figure 6.1 , greed is posited as a consequent of fulfillment of goals. Thus, inter- acting with ecology and thinking about the objective or the subjective worlds lead a person to develop attachment to elements of these worlds (see Figure. 3.1). Attachment leads to the development of desire for the object. Thus, an individual is directed toward goals through dhyAyan (or thoughts), saGga (or attachment), and kAma (or desire). When desired goals are not met, the person is unhappy, i.e., anger 2 Verse 3.39: AvRtaM jnAnametena jnAnino nityavairiNA; kAmarUpeNa kaunteya duSpUreNA nalena ca . 115 A General Model of Psychological Processes and Desire is generated. When desired goals are attained, the individual wants more, i.e., greed is generated. Thus, desires are at the center of both emotions – greed and anger. The significance of desire can be seen in that to obtain harmony one has to learn to deal with one’s own desires. In verse 2.71 of the bhagavadgItA, it is stated that the person who gives up all desires attains peace by dwelling in the world without any sense of ownership, identity, or greed (see Bhawuk, 1999; also Chapter 7 for a model that captures the process of how one achieves peace). Further, in verse 3.41, it is stated that we can go beyond desires or we can conquer desires by regulating our senses. 3 The choice of words is quite strong in this verse. Desires are referred to as the destroyer of jnAna and vijnAna, or all knowledge, and thus are labeled, pApmAnam, or the great sin, and kRSNa asks arjuna to kill (prajahi) desire by regulating the senses. A General Model of Psychological Processes and Desire In verse 40 of the third Canto of the bhagavadgItA, it is stated that desires reside in the sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin), manas (or mind), and buddhi (intellect or ability to discriminate right from wrong), and that desires are so power- ful that they cover the person’s jnAna (i.e., knowledge or ability to discriminate between right and wrong) 4 and bewilder him or her. Clearly, the self interacts with body and manas, and then with the elements of the environment or ecology, and this interaction leads to perception and cognition of what the environment has to offer. The ecology or environment is referred to here as the material world, to remain faith- ful to the indigenous worldview and also to provide an indigenous flavor. 5 From many alternatives, the self cognitively chooses some elements from the environment, which leads to attachment to these elements. Following this attachment, which has both cognitive and affective elements, a desire is born, but not all desires catch our attention since we only have limited personal resources and we cannot pursue all desires. Thus, the self pursues few objectives or the objects of the selected few desires. Achievement of such desires leads to positive affect or emotion, whereas nonachievement of the desires leads to negative affect or emotion (see Figure 6.2 ). Negative affect or emotions are clearly the sources of unhappiness, but the bhagavadgItA also suggests that even positive affects resulting from the achieve- ment of desires ultimately lead to unhappiness. Desires are by nature insatiable, as the fulfillment of one leads to the emergence of another. In verse 22 of the fifth 3 Verse 3.41: tasmAttvamindRyANyAdau niyamya bharatrSabha; pApmAnaM prajahi hyenaM jnAnavijnAnanAzanam . 4 Verse 3.40: indriyaNi mano buddhirasyAdhiSThAnamucyate; etairvimohayatyeSa jnAnmAvRtya dehinam . 5 Often the environment or ecology in which we operate is referred to as the material world in the Indian worldview to separate the material from the spiritual and to separate the mundane or ever changing from the sublime or intransient. Thus, I refer to the ecology or environment as the mate- rial world in the model to capture and to remain faithful to the indigenous spirit and worldview and also to provide an indigenous flavor. 116 6 A Process Model of Desire Canto, it is stated that all enjoyments resulting from the contact between human body (and manas) and the environment sooner or later lead to distress. Therefore, those who are wise do not take delight in worldly activities. 6 Further, in the 14th Canto, it is stated that rajas or the mode of passion leads to work (verses 14.9 and “When I pushed forward, I was whirled about. When I stayed in place, I sank. And so I crossed the flood without pushing forward, without staying in place.”(Buddha: ogha-tarana sutta, samyutta nikaya) Feedback to Attenuate Desires: DESIRE MANAGEMENT SELF ELEMENTS OF MATERIAL WORLD COGNITION (THOUGHT) COGNITION + AFFECT (ATTACHMENT) DESIRE ACHIEVEMENT OF DESIRE (POSITIVE AFFECT) NON-ACHIEVEMENT OF DESIRE (NEGATIVE AFFECT) INSATIABLE DESIRE CYCLE (ULTIMATELY UNHAPPINESS) UNHAPPINESS sthitaprajna (BEYOND COGNITION & EMOTION) (BEYOND HAPPINESS -- TO BLISS) manan-cintan (SELF-REFLECTION) brahman BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION abhyAsa (practice) & vairAgya (detachment) karmayoga Download 3.52 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
Ma'lumotlar bazasi mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan ©fayllar.org 2024
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling