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- Chapter 9 Epistemology and Ontology of Indian Psychology
Why to Work As can be seen from the above, Canto 3 of the bhagavadgItA is clearly dedicated to the discussion of karma and is no surprise that it is labeled karmayoga by all commentators of the text as stated at the end of the Canto. To summarize, in the bhagavadgItA , kRSNa tells arjuna that his karma or work as a kSatriya was to fight and gives five compelling reasons why we all have to do our karma or work. The first argument, given in verse 3.4, deals with the philosophical issue of pursuit of mokSa . Just as one cannot become a sannyAsi or monk by simply entering into the order of sannyAsa, one cannot rise beyond karma (i.e., become naiSkarmya) by not starting activities. The goal in life is, of course, mokSa or liberation from the cycle of birth and death, and for that one has to become naiSkarmya. However, naiSkarmya is not about not doing activities. Therefore, even for mokSa, the ulti- mate goal of human life, one must work. The second argument, given in the first line of verse 3.5, pertains to the physical world and our physical body. Human body is endowed with five jnAnendriyas (organs of knowledge or perception) and five karmendriyas (organs of action), which are coordinated by the manas 70 and buddhi. 71 The nature of these organs is 67 Verse 3.33: sadrizaM ceSTate svasyAH prakriterjnAnavAnapi; prakritM yAnti bhUtani nigrahaH kiMkariSyati . 68 Verse 3.34: indriyasyendriyasyArthe rAgadveSau vyavasthitau; tayorna vazamAgacchettau hyasya paripanthinau . 69 Verse 3.35: zreyansvadharmo viguNaH pardgarmAtsvanuSThitAt; svadharme nidhanaM zreyaH paradharmo bhayAvahaH . 70 We discussed in chapter four that manas is an Indian concept that cannot be captured by mind, since it is the locus of cognition, affect, and behavior. 71 We discussed in chapter four that buddhi is an Indian concept, which has an important role in the pursuit of self-realization that cannot be accurately captured by intellect. 158 8 karma: An Indian Theory of Work such that human body is simply not capable of existing without doing something even for a moment, and therefore we must work. With our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin, we constantly see, hear, smell, taste, or feel something. Therefore, given any moment, we are doing something. The popular American saying, “Don’t just stand there; do something” exhorts people to be busy with some action, whereas this verse states that it is not possible to do nothing. In fact, this verse goes further and states that even in standing the person is doing something (i.e., he or she is standing and observing the environment). Thus, the second argument is that since we cannot exist without doing something, we may as well perform our svadharma or work that is prescribed by the social and cultural norms. It should be noted that in the Indian worldview, svadharma is supposed to be naturally meaningful, and paradharma or others’ work is dangerous (bhayAvaha), and thus cannot be meaningful. The third argument, given in the second line of verse 3.5, is that everybody, in fact every living being, is under compulsion of its basic nature to work. The fish swim in water. The birds fly in air. The plants grow on earth or under water (e.g., coral reef) depending on their nature. Animals act according to their nature; for example, there is a wide variation in their eating behavior: some are vegetarians whereas others are carnivorous, and still others are omnivorous. Similarly, we all have some natural aptitude, which we acquire as we learn skills growing up in our family, society, and culture. Since our aptitude will invariably drive us into doing something that we are naturally good at (e.g., being an artist, an actor, a scientist, a manager, and so forth), we cannot get by without working, and therefore, we must work. There are many examples in the Indian scriptures of how people have some natural aptitude. For example, parzurAm was a brahmin but a warrior by nature; rAma was a kSatriya but kind (or saumya or mRdu) by nature; ekalavya and arjuna were archers by aptitude; bhIm was a wrestler, good at mace (he was a gadAdhara), also an accomplished cook, and had a weakness for good food. Some of us like hot food, and others like mild food. Some of us like to work out, whereas others like to do yoga. Thus, there is much face validity to this argument that we are all driven by our natural aptitude to engage in some activities. This is similar to the Lutheran notion of vocation as a calling. The fourth argument, given in the second line of verse 3.8, is about our social life. We are born and live in a society, and our life is like a journey, to use a metaphor, and like every journey this journey requires certain implements and has certain conditions. The argument is that we simply cannot move forward on this journey without doing work. The society expects us to take responsibility of ourselves and our family, it expects us to be a productive member, it expects us to fulfill the roles assigned to us, and so forth. Thus, to complete this journey of life one must work. The fifth argument, given in verse 3.6, is more philosophical and builds on the above arguments. It is argued that in view of the above four arguments, it is simply not possible not to work and that in the extreme situation one may force the jnAn and karma organs to stop functioning. However, it is argued that in such a situation one is likely to still keep dwelling on various activities and work, which is being hypocritical. Therefore, instead of being a hypocrite, one must work. 159 How to Work How to Work The bhagavadgItA goes on at length to suggest that the ideal way to perform our work is by offering the fruits of our endeavors to brahman. It goes on to define that yoga is mastery of one’s work (yogaH karmasu kauzalam), somewhat different from the yogic definition of yoga (yogazcittavRttinirodha, or yoga is the control of the wandering of the manas), and also to define yoga as equanimity or balance in action (samatvaM yoga ucyate). These are insights that have a lot of face validity. If we master what we do, it becomes less stressful, though the mastery process may be stressful. We all know that an expert craftsperson does not think about what he or she is doing and creates perfect products. An expert teacher intuitively knows what the students need and provides them the best learning experience. And simi- larly a skilled manager knows what situation calls for what technique to be effec- tive. Mastery of our skills does help us perform at our best and without stress. This is consistent with the cognitive psychology literature where skill acquisition pro- ceeds from declarative to procedural to automaticity (Anderson, 2000), which is also applicable to intercultural and other social skills (Bhawuk, 2001b). Mastery of the skill leads to the behavior to become habitual, which is effortless. This has also been referred to as the peak experience or flow in the Western psychological litera- ture (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Besides mastery of our skills, it is also important to maintain equanimity in our work and other aspects of life. Maintaining a balance in all kinds of duality – happiness and sorrow, success and failure, hot and cold, friend and foe, loss and gain, praise and insult, etc. – is necessary to be able to do our work perfectly. And these two mantras (yogaH karmasu kauzalam and samatvaM yoga ucyate) translate into niSkAma karma, or work done without pursuing the fruits of our efforts, if we practice them regularly and cultivate detachment (abhyAsena tu kaunteya vairAgyena ca gRhyate , verse 6.35b). By taking our mind away from the fruits of our work, we are able to develop a mindset in which we leave every- thing up to brahman – if we get the fruit we thank brahman; if we do not we thank brahman for brahman knows best what we need. Thus, we can be trans- formed to have deep compassion and tolerance toward failure. “Failure? What is that?” This would be the likely response of a person in such a mindset. And clearly, such a mindset is averse to any stress. Thus, doing our work with equa- nimity leads to a stress-free life. We do not have to “not try” to achieve organizational or personal objectives. That is not what the bhagavadgItA is suggesting since clearly arjuna is being moti- vated to engage in the battle. Instead, we are encouraged to work hard and to treat work with the same dedication that we show in worshipping the devas (svakar- maNa tamabhyarcya , verse 18.46b). At the same time, we are encouraged not to chase the fruits of our effort and are advised to offer them to the devas. Thus, niSkAma karma becomes a path of spiritual self-development. 160 8 karma: An Indian Theory of Work Implications for Global Psychology The fabled message of niSkAma karma of the bhagavadgItA simply suggests that we should neither work with our mind on achieving the fruits of our actions, nor become attached to not doing this work or only doing that work. Thus, according to the bhagavadgItA – work is to be performed for its own sake, not for its out- comes, and yet such a mindset should motivate one not to withdraw from action. Others have discovered this same principle in their own life across the oceans. For example, Dewitt Jones, a motivational speaker and a distinguished and celebrated photographer of the National Geographic presents the same idea as doing work “for the love of it,” which is the title of his 30-min presentation available on DVD. To quote Dewitt Jones: I remember back in college, I saw the poet Robert Frost speak. Another very passionate man. For two hours he just held the audience in the palm of his hands, igniting us, inspiring us with his visions. And then he read from a poem called Two Tramps in Mud Time. He read words I’ll never forget: ‘My object in living is to unite, my avocation and my vocation; As my two eyes make one in sight; Only when love and need are one, and the work is play for mortal stakes, is the deed ever really done, for Heaven and the future’s sake.’ My object in living is to unite my avocation and my vocation. My vocation: what I had to do, what they paid me to do. My avocation: what I couldn’t help but do; what I loved to do. As my two eyes make one in sight. At one level, Frost was saying loud and clear, do what you love! Follow your bliss; make your living doing those things that bring you joy. I don’t think there’s anybody who doesn’t want to do that. And yet for many of us, probably most of us, it just doesn’t turn out that way. But as I listened to Frost, I realized that he was showing me another way that I could unite my avocation and my vocation. I could do what I love. Or, I could love what I do. I could love what I do. I could just fall in love with the task at hand. I could do my job for the love of it. What Dewitt Jones is proposing in his inspirational speech is not so different from niSkAma karma that the bhagavadgItA proposes, showing the possibility of a uni- versal or etic in the construct of niSkAma karma or karmayoga. Paul’s instructions to the Colossians in the New Testament is also to work for God – And whatever you do in word or deed, do all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through Him (Colossians, 3.17). And whatever you do, do it heartily, as to the Lord and not to men (Colossians, 3.23). Knowing that from the Lord you will receive the reward of the inheritance; for you serve the Lord Christ (Colossians, 3.24). This idea was transformed by Martin Luther who gave everyday activity spiritual significance by coining the term beruf or calling and instructed people to perform their social roles (e.g., husband, wife, servant, master, or commoner) to the best of their ability as if that was their calling from God. Thus, the doctrine of niSkAma karma postulated in the bhagavadgItA is also supported in the Christian faith, and the convergence of these ideas should be taken as natural experiments occurring in different cultures confirming the same human insight if not truth, further indicating the possibility of a universal or an etic in this construct. Another aspect of niSkAma karma is that it shifts the focus from the character- istics of the task to the attitude of the person, raising question about the universality 161 Implications for Global Psychology of the motivating potential of task characteristics namely, skill variety, task significance, task identity, autonomy, and feedback (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). It is known that many saints of India performed the most mundane and menial tasks of a weaver (Kabir Das), cobbler (Rai Das), petty storekeeper (Nisargadatta Maharaj), and so forth, but their work never limited them to achieve their spiritual potential. In fact, performing such tasks could be used as a test to ascertain for oneself if one has given up his or her desire for performing tasks that reflect social status or power. It would be interesting to examine if spiritual advancement is nega- tively correlated to what a person does for a living. To take an extreme position, to be provocative, one could posit that a theory of meaningful work or social change is really futile if not meaningless, because social change can be chased ad nauseam without really obtaining the desired change. The failure of Marxism is one such example. True change could only come if we are the change that we desire to see in the society; we must change individually to bring about the change in the society. Following the wisdom of the bhagavadgItA, when one truly seeks the self or Atman, one works without the desire of the fruits of one’s effort, and the energy that goes in struggling with the hindrances gets channeled toward calming the manas and buddhi, and one starts to accept and burn the prA- rabdha (or the circumstances that arise in our current life as the outcome of our own actions in the past lives). Following this process, we are able to effect change in the society because one self-realized person is one less random entity in the universe and the entropy of the universe decreases not infinitesimally but infinitely, albeit mystically rather than scientifically as physicist do their measurement. In the Western literature, there is much talk about working smart, and it is often presented in opposition to working hard. Many books are available to help people to learn to work smart rather than hard (e.g., Taub & Tullier, 1998). Working hard can lead to stress and burnout, which working smart can avoid. The bhagavadgItA offers a different solution to the debate on working hard versus smart. It supports working hard, as hard as it takes to do a job, but it recommends that we do not covet or worry about the expected outcomes of the work. By doing so, work becomes pleasurable, and we would not get stressed out. Thus, by following the doctrine of niSkAma karma modern work stress can be avoided. The bhagavadgItA presents an approach toward consuming the gifts of earth and our environment, which we have discovered to be fragile. It was noted (in verse 3.12) that devas or nature would fulfill the desires of people who perform proper action or yajna, and one should not consume anything without offering it to the devas . Thus, whatever is consumed becomes prasAd or gift of the devas. But a warning is issued that one should offer everything to the devas before consuming it; and what is consumed without offering it to the devas is tantamount to stealing. The message of the bhagavadgItA is for the humans to take responsibility of the environment and not to consume excessively, which is tantamount to stealing or forcing from the environment what it cannot afford to give. This perspective has important implications for ethical behavior toward our environment, a burning issue for humanity today. wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww 163 D.P.S. Bhawuk, Spirituality and Indian Psychology, International and Cultural Psychology, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-8110-3_9, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 As ecology and history shape culture, any discussion of the roots and practice of a discipline like psychology needs to be couched in the historical context since the present emerges from the interaction between the past and the zeitgeist (Bhawuk, 2003a, 2010; Liu, in press; Liu & Hilton, 2005; Triandis, 1994). It is important to do so as this would allow us to be objective about the role of colo- nialism and the zeitgeist of dominant logical positivism in shaping the way we view ourselves, our profession, and the knowledge we create. It would be ostrich like to try to bury the pathological consequences of colonialism and its impact on who we are, what we study, and how (Bhawuk 2007a, b; 2008a; Smith, 1999). However, delving too much in the history of colonialism and its impact on knowl- edge creation can also take away the freedom to break the fetters of intellectual colonization and soar in the indigenous space of insight and wisdom. In this chapter, an attempt is made not to ignore the history of colonization, but yet to look at the epistemology and ontology of Indian Psychology with an open eye on the Indian wisdom tradition, which is consistent with the advice of Yang (1997) that includes what to avoid as well as some positive guidelines for pursuing indigenous research. Hwang (2004) cogently argued that for indigenous psychologies to emerge suc- cessfully from the yoke of Western psychology, researchers will need to make break- throughs in three areas. First, they will need to reflect philosophically and not follow the Western philosophical positions on the meaning of modernization. Often it is assumed that the Big Bang of knowledge creation started with renaissance in the West in the fourteenth century. It is important to remember that China and India were the first world economically until 1760 and produced 75% of the world GDP (Bhawuk, Munusamy, Bechtold, & Sakuda, 2007; Kennedy, 1988). What is consid- ered first world today was third world up to 1760. The cultural wealth in these countries has not been lost, and people in these countries only need to reorient them- selves to their cultural paradigms, which is already happening. Second, researchers in these countries need to develop theoretical frameworks that capture their world- view. Finally, they need to test their models “empirically” using methodology, which are suitable to answer questions that are relevant in their cultural space; empirically does not mean following the logical positivist worldview and methodology. In this Chapter 9 Epistemology and Ontology of Indian Psychology 164 9 Epistemology and Ontology of Indian Psychology chapter, an attempt is made to address all three criteria presented by Hwang by deriving the epistemology and ontology of Indian Psychology. Epistemology or theory of knowledge is about nature, origin (or source), scope (or limitations), and variety of knowledge, i.e., what knowledge is, how it is acquired, what its relationship to truth is (i.e., if the knowledge that we have is true, then we have knowledge; if not, it is no knowledge; so how do we know that we know the truth?), its relationship to belief (i.e., knowledge is true belief), and its relationship with justification (i.e., why and how do we know what we know, or how can we justify that we have the truth?) (Audi, 1998; Ayer, 1956; BonJour, 2002). On the other hand, ontology is about what the being is or the study of being. What is existence? Which entities are fundamental? What characteristics are essential as opposed to peripheral? Ontology answers these questions (Quine, 1948). Epistemology of Indian Psychology will be developed by deriving answer to these questions from the scriptures, by examining what knowledge is in the Indian world- view, and focusing on Indian Psychology as the study of that knowledge. Similarly, verses from the scriptures will be examined to address the ontological questions presented above. It should be noted that the meaning of episteme in ancient Greek was “knowledge,” whereas in modern Greek it means “science” (Foucault, 2002). In this chapter, episteme is taken to mean knowledge rather than science. 1 Indeed, epistemology and ontology can be dense and elaborate topics, often mind-boggling not only for young scholars but also for seasoned researchers. But it need not be so, at least not for Indian Psychology. The epistemology of Indian Psychology and philosophy merge with the general Indian worldview of knowledge, truth, and belief about making sense of the self and the world. An attempt is made here to derive the epistemological and ontological foundations of Indian Psychology from a verse in the vedas, and then they are corroborated by some verses in the bhagavadgItA. This is consistent with the recommendation of Chakrabarty (1994) to use “word as a source of knowledge (p. viii),” who lamented that “epistemically respectable scientific, historical, social and psychological information is constantly derived from intelligible statements made by others (p. 20)” yet “knowing from words has been largely neglected (p. vii).” Since the bhagavadgItA is a synthesis of all Indian ideas and wisdom (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1957), if the ideas test out against this text, they could be considered reasonably sound. In what follows, the epistemology and ontology of Indian Psychology as derived from the classical texts are presented, and their role in constructing cultural meaning for theory, method, and practice is discussed. 1 These definitional questions about epistemology and ontology have emerged from reading about them and discussing with many colleagues over the years. In a personal communication with two Greek colleagues, Nick Sydonius and Harry Triandis, it became clear that the meaning of episteme has changed over the years. In modern Greek, it does mean “science” rather than “knowledge,” a clear departure from the time of Plato. However, there has not been such a shift in the meaning of ontology. It seems that the Western belief has shifted to accept only knowledge created by science as truth. This would be an important difference between Indian and Western cultures when we think about what knowledge is. 165 Deriving Epistemology and Ontology of Indian Psychology Download 3.52 Kb. 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