International law, Sixth edition
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International Law MALCOLM N. SHAW
Eastern Greenland case, PCIJ, Series A/B, No. 53, 1933, p. 46; 6 AD, p. 95; the Clipperton
Island case, 26 AJIL, 1932, p. 390; 6 AD, p. 105, and the Minquiers and Ecrehos case, ICJ Reports, 1953, p. 47; 20 ILR, p. 94. 131 PCIJ, Series A/B, No. 53, pp. 45–6. See also Qatar v. Bahrain, ICJ Reports, 2001, para. 198, and Indonesia/ Malaysia, ICJ Reports, 2002, pp. 625, 682. Note also the Malaysia/Singapore case, ICJ Reports, 2008, paras. 62–7. 132 114 ILR, pp. 1, 118. Other obvious factors in such situations would include consideration of the geographical position, ibid., p. 119. 512 i n t e r nat i o na l l aw In the Island of Palmas arbitration 133 the dispute concerned sovereignty over a particular island in the Pacific. The United States declared that, since by a treaty of 1898 Spain had ceded to it all Spanish rights possessed in that region and since that included the island discovered by Spain, the United States of America therefore had a good title. The Netherlands, on the other hand, claimed the territory on the basis of the exercise of various rights of sovereignty over it since the seventeenth century. The arbitrator, Max Huber, in a judgment which discussed the whole nature of territorial sovereignty, dismissed the American claims derived from the Spanish discovery as not effective to found title. 134 Huber declared that the Netherlands possessed sovereignty on the basis of ‘the actual continuous and peaceful display of state functions’ evidenced by various adminis- trative acts performed over the centuries. 135 It was also emphasised that manifestations of territorial sovereignty may assume different forms, ac- cording to conditions of time and place. Indeed, ‘the intermittence and discontinuity compatible with the maintenance of the right necessarily differ according as inhabited or uninhabited regions are involved’. Addi- tionally, geographical factors were relevant. 136 The Clipperton Island arbitration 137 concerned a dispute between France and Mexico over an uninhabited island. The arbitrator empha- sised that the actual, and not the nominal, taking of possession was a necessary condition of occupation, but noted that such taking of posses- sion may be undertaken in different ways depending upon the nature of the territory concerned. In this case, a proclamation of sovereignty by a French naval officer later published in Honolulu was deemed sufficient to create a valid title. Relevant to this decision was the weakness of the Mexican claims to the guano-rich island, as well as the uninhabited and inhospitable nature of the territory. These two cases, together with the Eastern Greenland case, 138 reveal that the effectiveness of the occupation may indeed be relative and may in certain rare circumstances be little more than symbolic. In the East- ern Greenland case before the Permanent Court of International Justice, both Norway and Denmark claimed sovereignty over Eastern Greenland. 133 2 RIAA, p. 829 (1928). 134 Ibid., p. 846. 135 Ibid., pp. 867–71. 136 Ibid., p. 840. See also, in this context, the American claim to the Howland, Baker and Jarvis Islands in the Pacific Ocean, where it was argued that the administration of the islands as part of the US Wildlife Refuge System constituted sufficient occupation, DUSPIL, 1975, pp. 92–4. 137 26 AJIL, 1932, p. 390; 6 AD, p. 105. 138 PCIJ, Series A/B, No. 53, 1933, p. 46; 6 AD, p. 95. t e r r i t o ry 513 Denmark had colonies in other parts of Greenland and had granted con- cessions in the uninhabited Eastern sector. In addition, it proclaimed that all treaties and legislation regarding Greenland covered the territory as a whole, as for example its establishment of the width of the territorial sea, and it sought to have its title to all of the territory recognised by other states. The Court felt that these acts were sufficient upon which to base a good title and were superior to various Norwegian actions such as the wintering of expeditions and the erection of a wireless station in Eastern Greenland, against which Denmark had protested. It is also to be noted that it was not until 1931 that Norway actually claimed the territory. Such activity in establishing a claim to territory must be performed by the state in the exercise of sovereign powers (`a titre de souverain) 139 or by individuals whose actions are subsequently ratified by their state, 140 or by corporations or companies permitted by the state to engage in such oper- ations and thus performed on behalf of the sovereign. 141 Otherwise, any acts undertaken are of no legal consequence. 142 Another relevant factor, although one of uncertain strength, is the requirement of the intention by the state in performing various activities to assert claim in its sovereign ca- pacity. In other words the facts are created pursuant to the will of the state to acquire sovereignty. This point was stressed in the Eastern Greenland case, 143 but appears not to have been considered as of first importance in the Island of Palmas case 144 or in the Minquiers and Ecrehos case, 145 where concern centred upon the nature and extent of the actual actions carried out by the contending states. Whatever the precise role of this subjec- tive element, some connection between the actions undertaken and the assertion of sovereignty is necessary. Account will also be taken of the nature of the exercise of the sovereignty in question, so that in the Rann of Kutch case, it was noted that: 139 That is, those made as a ‘public claim of right or assertion of sovereignty . . . as well as legislative acts’, Eritrea/Yemen, 114 ILR, pp. 1, 69. See also the Minquiers and Ecrehos case, ICJ Reports, 1953, pp. 47, 65 and 69; 20 ILR, p. 94. Such acts need to relate clearly to the territory in question,Indonesia/Malaysia, ICJ Reports, 2002, pp. 625, 682–3. 140 The Court has emphasised that ‘activities by private persons cannot be seen as effectivit´es if they do not take place on the basis of official regulations or under governmental authority’, Download 7.77 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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