Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
particular English personal pronoun may be expressed by the
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
particular English personal pronoun may be expressed by the absence of any overt form in a particular context. In the Japanese sentences in (59) and (60), for example, there are no overt equivalents of ‘he’, ‘her’, and ‘I’. (59) John wa Mary o sitte-imasu ga, amari yoku wa sirima-sen John top Mary obj knows but really well top knows-not ‘John knows Mary, but he doesn’t know her very well’ (60) Gohan o tab-tai rice obj eat-desiderative ‘I want to eat rice’ Reflexive pronouns are pronouns which are interpreted as coreferential with another nominal, usually the subject, of the sentence or clause in which they occur. In English the reflexive pronouns are formed with -self or -selves: (61) John shaved himself John and Bill shaved themselves It happens that in English -self/-selves pronouns are also used to indicate emphasis, as in: (62) John himself shaved Bill In many languages, however, the reflexive and emphatic structures are formally unrelated, and the latter do not involve pronouns. Note, for example, the fol- lowing Tagalog sentences: (63) Inahit ni John ang sarili niya shaved ag John top self his ‘John shaved himself’ (64) Inahit ni John mismo si Bill shaved ag John emph top Bill ‘John himself shaved Bill’ Parts-of-speech systems 27 (The emphatic -self/-selves forms and their non-pronominal counterparts in other languages should perhaps be considered a type of discourse marker – see section 2.2.) Some languages which have distinct reflexive and non-reflexive third person pronouns do not make such a distinction for the other persons, but instead use the same first and second person pronouns both reflexively and non-reflexively. Note the following examples from French: (65) a. Ils me voient they me see ‘They see me’ b. Je me vois I me see ‘I see myself’ (66) a. Ils te voient they you see ‘They see you’ b. Tu te vois you you see ‘You see yourself’ (67) a. Ils les voient they them see ‘They see them’ b. Ils se voient they refl see ‘They see themselves’ There are also languages in which an invariable form is used for the reflexive, regardless of the person or number of the nominal with which it is coreferential. This is true, for instance, of Japanese, as the following examples illustrate: (68) Taroo wa zibun o mamotta Taroo top refl obj defended ‘Taroo defended himself’ (69) Boku wa zibun o mamotta I top refl obj defended ‘I defended myself’ (These examples, as well as some of those cited below, are from Faltz (1977).) In a good many languages, reflexive forms are analysable as a head nominal modified by a pronominal possessive agreeing with the subject. Often the head nominal also occurs as a common noun meaning ‘head’ or ‘body’. For example, 28 Paul Schachter and Timothy Shopen Fula reflexives, as in (70), are formed with hoore ‘head’, while Akan reflexives, as in (71), are formed with ho ‘body’. There are also languages such as Malagasy (72), that use a common noun without a modifying possessive: (70) Mi gaa˜ni hooreqam I wounded my head ‘I wounded myself’ (71) Mihuu me ho I saw my body ‘I saw myself’ (72) Namono tena Rabe killed body Rabe ‘Rabe killed himself’ In languages that do not have reflexive pronouns or reflexively interpreted nouns or noun phrases, reflexive meanings may be expressed by verbal affixes, as in the following examples from Tswana (where the reflexive affix is -i-) and Lakhota (where it is -ic’i-): (73) Ke-tla-i-thˆek-ˆela selˆepˆe I-fut-refl-buy-ben axe ‘I shall buy an axe for myself’ (74) Opheic’i thon ‘He bought it for himself’ cf. Ophet h on ‘He bought it’ Reciprocal pronouns, like reflexive pronouns, are interpreted as coreferential with a co-occurring nominal, but are used to express mutual actions, conditions, etc. The English reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another, as in: (75) They helped each other They helped one another Reciprocal and reflexive formations are often closely related. In Akan, for example, the reciprocal is formed by a kind of doubling of the reflexives: (76) Wohuu w ɔ n ho w ɔ n ho they. saw their body their body ‘They saw each other’ cf. Wohuu w ɔ n ho they. saw their body ‘They saw themselves’ |
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