Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
Parts-of-speech systems 33 used as pro-sentences meaning ‘yes’ or ‘no’ can be used as pro-clauses. Thus in French, oui ‘yes’ and non ‘no’ occur in constructions like: (94) a. Je crois que oui I believe that yes ‘I believe so’ b. Il dit que non he says that no ‘He says not’ Pro-verbs, pro-adjectives, and pro-adverbs are words which substitute for verbs (or verb phrases), adjectives (or adjective phrases), and adverbs (or adverb phrases) respectively. In Mandarin Chinese (see Chao (1968)), there are pro- verbs such as lai ‘do it’, tzemme ‘do this’, nemme ‘do that’. An example, using the most common of these, lai, is: (95) Ni buhui xiu zhe jigu, rang wo lai you know.how.neg repair this machine let I do. it ‘You don’t know how to repair this machine; let me do it’ An example of a pro-adjective is the le of a French sentence such as (93). (96) Jean est grand, mais je ne le suis pas Jean is tall but I neg pro.adj am not ‘Jean is tall, but I’m not’ And an example of a pro-adverb is English thus or its (more commonly used) Akan equivalents s εε ‘this way’ and s ɑɑ ‘that way, the same way’: (97) Menoa no s εε , na ɔ no nso noa no s ɑɑ I. cook it this. way, and he too cooks it that. way ‘I cook it this way, and he cooks it the same way’ Interrogative pro-forms are words like English who, what, where, when, etc., as these are used at the beginning of questions. The set of interrogative pro- forms often cuts across other parts-of-speech classes. Thus in English there are interrogative pronouns (e.g. who, what), interrogative adverbs (e.g. where, when), and interrogative articles (e.g. which in which book – see section 2.2 for a general discussion of articles). And some other languages have interrogative pro-forms with no English counterparts. In Tagalog, for example, the interrog- ative root ɑ no ‘what’ (which is also used as a confirmation-question tag) occurs 34 Paul Schachter and Timothy Shopen in various formations with adjective-forming and verb-forming affixes. Some examples of the resultant interrogative adjectives and verbs are: (98) a. Napakaano nila? very. what they ‘What are they very much like?’ cf. Napakataas nila very. tall they ‘They are very tall’ b. Nagano ka? (perf. active)what you ‘What did you do?’ cf. Nagsalita ka (perf. active)speak you ‘You spoke’ c. Naano ka? (perf. invol)what you ‘What happened to you?’ cf. Natalisod ka (perf. invol)trip you ‘You tripped’ It appears that all languages have interrogative pro-forms, but that the types of interrogative pro-forms that occur vary considerably from language to lan- guage, partly in conformity with the language’s overall parts-of-speech system. Thus a language that lacks adverbs in general will naturally enough not have interrogative adverbs. For example, in Yana, which evidently has no adverbs, the equivalents of English when, where, etc., are all expressed by verb stems: (99) a. Beema’a-wara-n a-n? where-perf-I-q ‘Where am I?’ b. Beeyauma-s aik nisaayau? when-fut his going. away ‘When will he go away?’ 2.2 Noun adjuncts This section discusses several classes of words that typically form phrasal con- stituents with nouns. In most cases, these words, here labeled noun adjuncts, have clear semantic import, conveying some information about the referent of the phrasal constituent that is not expressed by the noun itself: for example the role of the referent in the action expressed by a co-occurring verb, or whether |
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