Lecture Bibliography cards, note-cards and note taking. Avoiding plagiarism and referencing. Plan

Lecture 8-9. Metalanguage and terminology. Graphic metalanguage.
Style of the research. Methods of the research.
Plan:

1. 
   What is metalanguage
   

2. Using graphic metalanguage in the research
3. Choosing between styles
4. Methods of the research
Methods of scientific research
Empirical (what is perceived by the senses) knowledge is in the process of experience, understood in the broadest sense, i.e. as the interaction of the subject with the object, wherein the subject is not only passively reflects the object, but also actively modifies, converts it.
The empirical method consists of consecutive committing the following five operations: monitoring, measurement, modelling, prediction, verification of prediction.
In science, the main forms of empirical research are observation and experiment. In addition, they include numerous measuring procedures, which, although closer is adjoined to the theory, is still carried out in the framework of empirical knowledge and particularly of the experiment.
The original empirical procedure observation, as it is included in the experiment and in the measurements, while the observations themselves can be made outside the experiment and not to assume measurements.
1. Observation - a purposeful study of the subject, based mainly on the data of the senses (sensations, perceptions, representations). During the observation of the resulting knowledge is not only on the outside of the object of knowledge, but - as the ultimate goal of his substantial properties and relations.
The concept of methods and techniques often used interchangeably, but often differ when methods are called more complex cognitive procedures, which include a whole range of different research methods.
Observation can be direct and mediated by various devices and technical devices (microscope, telescope, photo and movie camera, etc.) With the development of science surveillance is becoming more complex and indirect.
The basic requirements to a scientific observation: uniqueness of the idea; a system of methods and techniques; objectivity, i.e. the ability of control by either repeated observations or by using other methods (e.g., experiment).
Typically, monitoring is included as part of the procedure of the experiment. An important observation is the interpretation of the results - transcript readings, the curve on the oscilloscope, electrocardiogram, etc.
Cognitive the result of observation is description - fixing by means of natural and artificial language source of information about the studied object: diagrams, graphs, charts, tables, drawings, etc. Surveillance is closely related to the measurement, which is the process of finding the relationship of this value to another uniform value adopted for the unit. The measurement result is expressed as a number.
The special difficulty of observation is in the Humanities and social Sciences, where the results depend heavily on the personality of the observer, his attitudes and principles, his interest in the subject.
During observation, the researcher is always guided by a certain idea, concept or hypothesis. He's not just logs any facts, and deliberately selects those which either confirm or refute his ideas.
It is very important to select the most representative, that is the most representative group of facts in their relationship. Interpretation of the observation is always carried out with the help of certain theoretical positions.
2. The experiment is the active and purposeful intervention in the course of the process under study, corresponding change of the object or its reproduction in specially created and controlled conditions.
Thus, in the experiment, the object or artificially reproduced or placed in a certain way specified conditions that meet the objectives of the study. In the experiment, the object under study is isolated from the influence of adverse circumstances which obscure its essence and presented in its purest form. However, the specific conditions of the experiment not only specified but also controlled, moderniziriruyutsya repeatedly reproduced.
Every scientific experiment is always sent to any idea, concept, hypothesis. The experiment data is somehow always theoretically loaded " - from its production to the interpretation of its results.
The main features of the experiment:
a) more active (than the observation) related to the object, until its change and transformation;
b) multiple reproducibility of the studied object at the request of the researcher;
C) the ability to detect such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;
g) the possibility of considering phenomena in a pure form by isolating it from complicating and making his train of circumstances, or by changing the variation of the conditions of the experiment;
d) the possibility of controlling the behavior of the object of study and check the results.
The main phase of the experiment: planning and building (its purpose, type, means, methods); control; interpretation of results.
The experiment has two interrelated functions: the testing of hypotheses and theories, as well as the formation of new scientific concepts. Depending on these functions allocate experiments: research (search), verification (control), reproducing, isolating.
In nature.objects emit physical, chemical, biological, and social experiments. Important in modern science has a crucial experiment whose goal is the refutation of the same and confirmation from the other two (or more) concepts that compete.
This difference is relative: an experiment conceived as a proof of may result to be disproving, and Vice versa. But in any case, the experiment consists of specific questions to nature, the answers to which should give information about its laws.
One of the simple types of a scientific experiment is a qualitative experiment designed to establish the presence or absence of the alleged hypothesis or theory of the phenomenon. More complex quantitative measurements, identifying the quantitative certainty of any property of the phenomenon under study.
Widespread in the modern science have received a thought experiment - a system of cognitive procedures carried out on idealized objects. A thought experiment is a theoretical model of the real experimental situations. Here the scientist operates not real objects and the conditions of their existence, and their conceptual images.
Increasingly, the development of social experiments that contribute to the implementation of new forms of social organization and optimization of management of the company. The object of the social experiment, which is a certain group of people, is one of the participants, whose interests have to be considered, and the researcher is included in the study the situation to them.
3. Comparison of cognitive operation that underlie judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. By comparing the identified qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects.
To compare is to compare one with the other in order to identify their relationship. The simplest and most important type of relationship detected by the comparison, are the relations of identity and difference.
It should be borne in mind that the comparison only makes sense in the totality of homogeneous objects that form a class. Compare objects in the class is on the grounds that significant for this consideration, the subjects to compare to one basis may be incomparably different.
Comparison is the basis of this logical technique, like the analogy, and serves as the starting point the comparative historical method.
This is the method by which by comparison reveals General and specific features in historical and other phenomena, is achieved by exploring different stages of development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena.
This method allows to identify and compare the levels in the development of the phenomenon under study changes, to identify trends. Scientific methods of theoretical research
1. Formalization - display substantial knowledge in symbolic form. The formalization is based on the distinction between natural and artificial languages. The expression of thinking in a natural language can be considered as the first step of formalization. Natural languages as a means of communication characterized by ambiguity, diversity, flexibility, inaccuracy, imagery, etc. This is an open, constantly changing system that constantly takes on new meaning and significance.
Further deepening of formalization is related to construction of artificial (formalized) languages, designed for more exact and rigorous expression of knowledge than natural language, in order to avoid the possibility of ambiguous understanding, which is characteristic of natural language (the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.)
The symbolic languages of mathematics and other exact Sciences, not only pursuing the goal of reducing the recording - this can be done by using shorthand. The language of formulas of an artificial language becomes a tool of cognition. He plays the same role in theoretical cognition, as the microscope and telescope in the empirical knowledge.
The use of special symbols allows to eliminate the ambiguity of words in ordinary language. In the formalized reasoning of each symbol is strictly unique.
As a universal tool for communication and exchange of ideas and information, language performs many functions.
An important task of logic and of the methodology - as accurately as possible to transfer and convert existing information and thereby eliminate some of the shortcomings of natural language. For this and created an artificial formalized languages. Such languages are used primarily in scientific knowledge and in recent years they have found wide acceptance in programming and algorithmization different processes using computers.
The advantage of artificial languages is primarily in their precision, uniqueness, and most importantly - the possibility of presentation of meaningful reasoning by computation.
The value of formalization in science is the following.
o It gives the opportunity to analyze, clarify, define, and explain (to explicitate) concepts. Ordinary view (expressed in spoken language), although they seem more clear and obvious from the point of view of common sense, are inappropriate for scientific knowledge because of their uncertainties, ambiguities and inaccuracies.
o She gets a special role in the analysis of evidence. Performance evidence in the form of a sequence of formulas derived from the source using exactly these transformation rules, gives them the necessary rigor and precision.
o It provides the framework for the process of algorithmization and programming of computing devices and thus the computerization of not only scientific and technical but also other forms of knowledge.
When formalizing reasoning about objects transferred in the plane of operating with signs (formulae). Relationship signs supersede statements about the properties and relationship of objects.
In this way creates a generalized symbolic model of some subject area, which allows to detect the structure of different phenomena and processes, with derivation from high-quality, meaningful characteristics.
Important in the process of formalization is that over the formulas of artificial languages, you can perform operations, to obtain from them new formulas and ratios.
Thus, transactions with thoughts about objects are replaced by actions with signs and symbols. Formalization in this sense is a logical method to clarify the content of thought by clarifying its logical form. But it has nothing to do with the absolutization of the logical form in relation to content.
Formalization, thus, is the generalization of forms different in content processes, abstraction of these forms from their content. It clarifies the content by identifying its shape and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness.
2. The axiomatic method is one of the ways of deductive construction of scientific theories, in which:
a) formulate the system of basic terms of science;
b) of these terms are formed by some set of axioms (postulates) of the regulations does not require proof and is the source from which are derived all other assertions of this theory according to certain rules;
in) is the system of rules of inference that allow you to convert the starting position and go from some States to others, as well as introduce new terms (concepts) of the theory;
d) the conversion of postulates according to rules, giving the possibility of a limited number of axioms to provable many of the provisions of the theorems.
Thus, for derivation of theorems from axioms are formulated special rules of inference.
All the concepts of the theory, but primitive, are introduced by means of definitions, expressing them through the previously introduced concepts.
Therefore, the proof in the axiomatic method - is some sequence of formulas each of which either is an axiom or is obtained from previous formulas by any rule of inference.
The axiomatic method is just one of the methods of constructing scientific knowledge. It has limited application because it requires a high level of development aksamitov substantive theory.
3. Gottico-deductive method. Its essence is to create a deductive system of interconnected hypotheses of which eventually output assertions about the empirical facts.
This method is thus based on the removal (deduction) of the conclusions of the hypotheses and other assumptions, the true value of which is unknown. Therefore, the conclusions are probabilistic in nature.
The nature of this conclusion is linked with the fact that in the formation of hypotheses involved and conjecture, intuition, and imagination, and inductive generalization, not to mention experience, skill and talent of the scientist. And all these factors almost do not lend themselves to strictly logical analysis.
Basic concepts: hypothesis (assumption) - the position put forward in the beginning of the pre-conditional explanation of a certain phenomenon or group of phenomena; the assumption of the existence of some phenomenon. The validity of this assumption is uncertain, it is problematic.
Deduction (deducing): a) in the most General sense, is a transition in the process of learning from General to specific (unit), removing the last of the first; b) in a special sense - the process of logical inference, i.e. of the transition according to certain rules of logic from some of these assumptions (assumptions) to their consequences (conclusions).
The General structure gottico-deductive method (or method of hypotheses):
- Familiarization with the actual material that requires theoretical explanation and an attempt of it with the help of existing theories and laws. If not, then:
The nomination guesses (conjectures) about the causes and regularities of these phenomena using many logical techniques.
- The significance of assumptions and the selection of the top-tier most likely.
The hypothesis is tested on: a) logical consistency; b) compatibility with the basic theoretical principles of this science (e.g., law of conservation and transformation of energy).
However, it should be borne in mind that in periods of scientific revolutions crumble it was the fundamental principles and there are crazy ideas that are not deducible from these principles.
o Elimination of hypotheses (usually by deductive) consequence of clarifying its content.
o Experimental testing of hypotheses derived from effects. Then the hypothesis or receives experimental confirmation, or refuted. However, the proof does not guarantee its truth in General (or falsity).
From a logical point of view gottico-deductive method is a hierarchy of hypotheses, the degree of abstraction and generality which increases as the distance from the empirical basis.
At the top are the hypothesis, having the most generic and therefore has the greatest logical powers. Of them from the packages derived hypotheses on a lower level. At the lowest level are the hypotheses that can be compared with empirical reality.
Kind gottico-deductive method can be considered a mathematical hypothesis, where the hypothesis are some equations that represents a modification of earlier known and proven relationships. By changing these ratios, constitute a new equation expressing the hypothesis, which refers to unexplored phenomena.
Gottico-deductive method is not so much a method of discovery, as a way of building and justification of scientific knowledge, since it shows how the path can come to a new hypothesis. Already in the early stages of the development of science this method is especially widely used by Galileo and Newton.
Zagalnogo methods and techniques of knowledge
1. Analysis - the separation of an object into its component parts with a view to their self-study. It is used in real (practice) and mental activity.
Types of analysis: mechanical dismemberment; determining dynamic content; identifying forms of interaction between elements of a whole; finding the reasons of the phenomena; identifying levels of knowledge and its structure, etc.
The analysis should not lose the quality of the items. In every field knowledge is like a limit the division of the object, which we pass on to another world properties and patterns (atom, molecule, etc.). A variation analysis is also the separation of the classes (sets) of objects on subclasses - classification and periodization.
2. Synthesis - combining - real or imaginary - of the various parties parts of the subject into a unified whole.
The result of the synthesis is a completely new entity whose properties are not only an external connection of a component's properties, but also the result of their internal relationship and interdependence.
Analysis and synthesis of dialectically interrelated, but some activities are mainly analytical (e.g., analytical chemistry) or synthetic (for example, synergetics).