Lexical transformations Grammatical transformations Lexico-grammatical transformations

Lexical substitution often are met in 4 cases:

1. 
   A concrete definition, Specification – replacing or substituting a word with a broad sense by one of a narrower meaning. Concretization is conditioned either by differences in stylistic characteristics of the languages, or by the requirements of grammatical order. Thus, the English noun “thing”, which has a very abstract meaning, almost pronominal, (The Shorter Oxford Dictionary определяет его как "an entity of any kind", "that which is or may be in any way an object of perception, knowledge, or thought") is translated by concretization: thing, object, case, fact, circumstance, work, being, etc. - вещь, предмет, дело, факт, случай, обстоятельство, произведение, существо и пр. - нарса, объект, ҳолат, факт, вазият, иш, борлиқ.
   

Also we use concretization when translating verbs of movement such as come and go. Unlike Russian verbs of movement, they do not include in their semantics a component indicating the mode of movement, so the verb come is specified in translation as: приходить, прибывать, приезжать, подходить, подбегать, приплывать, прилетать и пр.- келиш, яқинлашиш, югуриш, сузиб келиш учиб келиш, a go — как идти, ходить, ехать, отправляться,сходить, проходить, плыть, лететь и пр. – бориш, юриш, ўтиш, сузиб бориш, учиш ва б.
He is at school – Он учиться в школе; У мактабда укийди. He is in the army – Он служит в армии; У армияда хизмат килади.
Will you do the room? – Ты уберешься в комнате? I’ll get the papers on the way home. – Я куплю газеты по дороге домой. The underlined English words have larger scopes of meaning than their Russian counterparts and their particular semantics is recognized from the context.
'So what?' I said. (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 6).
- Ну так что же? спрашиваю я.
'Hello', I said when somebody answered the goddam phone, (ib., 20)
- Алло!— крикнул я, когда кто-то подошел к этому треклятому телефону.
She had said that she was in bed and ill. (W. Thackeray, Vanity Fair, XIX)
Бекки писала, что она больна и лежит в постели, (пер. М. Дьяконова)