Lexical transformations Grammatical transformations Lexico-grammatical transformations

Generalization - replacing or substituting a word’s narrow meaning by one with a broad sense: A Navajo blanket – жун адёл; индийское одеяло.

People don’t like to be stared at. – Людям не нравится, когда на них смотрят. If we compare the semantic structure of the English, Uzbek and Russian verbs, we can see that the English stare specifies the action of seeing expressed by the Russian/Uzbek verb. The Russian смотреть / Uzbek қараш can imply staring, facing, eyeing, etc. The specific meaning in the Russian / Uzbek sentence can be expressed by the adverb пристально / тикилиб қараш. Another reason for generalization in translation can be that the particular meaning expressed by the source language word might be irrelevant for the translation receptor: She bought the Oolong tea on her way home. – По дороге домой она купила китайского чаю. Oolong is a sort of Chinese tea but for the receptor this information is not important; therefore, the translator can generalize.
An integral transformation: How do you do – Салом; Здравствуйте
...Не comes over and visits me practically every weekend. (I)
...Он часто ко мне ездит, почти каждую неделю.
Then this girl gets killed, because she's always speeding. (3)
А потом девушка гибнет, потому что она вечно нарушает правила.
"Who won the game?"! said. "It's only the half" (3)
- А кто выиграл? — спрашиваю. — Еще не кончилось.
Generalization is often caused by a pragmatic factor also:
...Не showed us this old beat-up Navajo blanket that he and Mrs. Spencer's bought off some Indian... (2)
...Он нам показал потрепанное индейское одеяло — они с миссис Спенсер купили его у какого-то индейца...
...Jane used to drive to market with her mother in this La Salle convertible they had. (11)
...Джейн ездила со своей матерью на рынок в их машине.

c). Differentiation is a rather rare technique of substitution. It takes place when we substitute a word by another one with parallel meaning, denoting a similar species: bamboo curtain – железный занавес. Both bamboo and железо (iron) are materials known for their hard nature. They are used figuratively to denote the barriers between the Western and Communist countries (bamboo curtain in reference to China, железный занавес in reference to other Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Aid) states. There are no hyponymic relations between the notions of bamboo and iron (though the referential area of железный занавес is of course much wider than that of bamboo curtain.)

1.