1989 Interconnection of commercial and federal networks The Federal Networking Council (FNC), program officer from cooperating agencies, give formal approval for interconnection of commercial and federal networks. The following year ARPANET is decommissioned. 1991 World Wide Web software developed CERN releases the World Wide Web software developed earlier by Tim Berners-Lee. Specifications for HTML (hypertext markup language), URL (uniform resource locator), and HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol) launch a new era for content distribution. At the University of Minnesota, a team of programmers led by Mark McCahill releases a point-and-click navigation tool, the "Gopher" document retrieval system, simplifying access to files over the Internet. 1992 Internet Society is formed The nonprofit Internet Society is formed to give the public information about the Internet and to support Internet standards, engineering, and management. The society later becomes home to a number of groups, including the IAB and IETF, and hold meetings around the world to promote diffusion of the Internet.
1993 Distribution of a browser accelerates adoption of the web Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina, of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, develop an easy-to-use graphical interface for the World Wide Web. Distribution of the "browser," NCSA Mosaic, accelerates adoption of the Web. The technology is eventually licensed to Microsoft as the basis for its initial Internet Explorer browser. In 1994 the team rewrites the browser, changing its name to Netscape. Later "browser wars" focus public attention on the emerging commercial Internet. 1993 Distribution of a browser accelerates adoption of the web Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina, of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, develop an easy-to-use graphical interface for the World Wide Web. Distribution of the "browser," NCSA Mosaic, accelerates adoption of the Web. The technology is eventually licensed to Microsoft as the basis for its initial Internet Explorer browser. In 1994 the team rewrites the browser, changing its name to Netscape. Later "browser wars" focus public attention on the emerging commercial Internet. 1993 Network Solutions manages domain names NSF solicits proposal to manage domain names for nonmilitary registrations and awards a 5-year agreement to Network Solutions, Inc. 1995 NSFNET decommissioned NSF decommissions the NSFNET. 1996 Telecommunications Act of 1996 President Clinton signs the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Among its provisions it gives schools and libraries access to state-of-the-art services and technologies at discounted rates. 1998 Coordination of Internet domain names transitions from federal to private sector The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is chartered by the U.S. Department of Commerce to transition from the federal government to the private sector the coordination and assignment of Internet domain names, IP address numbers and various protocol parameters.
To see with a keener eye has been a human obsession since the times of Leeuwenhoek and Galileo, considered fathers of the microscope and telescope, respectively. For centuries keener vision meant to see more clearly what was far away or what was very small—to magnify and sharpen. But in the 20th century it also came to signify all sorts of vision that once would have been deemed "magic"—the penetration of veils both around us and within us as well as the registering of forms of "light" to which human sight is utterly blind. To see with a keener eye has been a human obsession since the times of Leeuwenhoek and Galileo, considered fathers of the microscope and telescope, respectively. For centuries keener vision meant to see more clearly what was far away or what was very small—to magnify and sharpen. But in the 20th century it also came to signify all sorts of vision that once would have been deemed "magic"—the penetration of veils both around us and within us as well as the registering of forms of "light" to which human sight is utterly blind. No less enchanting was a host of developments in the recording of images, including color photography, holography and other three-dimensional imaging, and digital photography; the invention and rapid dissemination of moving pictures and television, which quickly came to dominate Western culture; and the proliferation of cameras, camcorders, videotapes, CDs, and DVDs, which have transformed our ways of looking at the world. Imaging even came to play a vital role in such endeavors as microelectronics, where electron beams and other devices etch hundreds of millions of transistors into the surface of computer memory chips and microprocessors. The story behind these new sorts of vision and imaging encompasses a wide range of fields, from astronomy to medicine, each with its own century-spanning plot line. Narrative threads intertwine along the way, with discoveries in one field contributing decades later to applications in another. The one common theme is how we turned new knowledge into tools that have improved our lives by changing how we see.
The first dawning rays of this new age of seeing appeared—quite literally—just before the beginning of the 20th century. In 1895 a German physicist named Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen accidentally discovered a form of radiation that could penetrate opaque objects and cast ghostly images on a photographic plate. Roentgen called his discovery X-radiation (the X was for "unknown"), and to prove its existence he took a picture of his wife's hand by exposing it to a beam of its rays. The result showed the bones of her hand and a ring on her finger as dark shadows on the photographic plate. It was the first x-ray image ever deliberately recorded.
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