O’ganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (nazariy grammatika, leksikologiya, stilistika)

particular tasks are put forward: 
to classify affixes. 
to classify the affixes according to its structure and semantics. 
to show productive ways of word – building process of the English language. 
The scientific novelty of the work. Novelty of the qualification work is determined by the necessity 
o the study of affixation which form a large layer of word – building process. And studying the 
productive ways of affixes in Modern English. 
The practical value. The practical value of the research is that material and the results of the given 
qualification work can serve the material for theoretical course of lexicology, stylistics, typology 
as well as can be used for practical lessons in translation, home reading, conversational practice 
and current events. 

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Suffixation. The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from 
another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. 
«educate» is a verb, «educatee» is a noun, and « music» is a noun, «musicdom» is also a noun) . 
There are different classifications of suffixes: 1.Part-of-speech classification. 2.Semantic 
classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups.
4.Origin of suffixes. 5.Productivity. 
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is 
characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in 
which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. 
Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un-
(unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in 
the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) (cf over the table). 
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles: 1. Semantic classification: a) prefixes 
of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc, b) prefixes 
denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- 
(disconnect), c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (interplanetary) , 
hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc. 
2. Origin of prefixes: a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc. b) Romanic, such as : 
in-, de-, ex-, re- etc. c) Greek, such as : sym-, hyper- etc. 
.. 
Morphemes, free and bound forms 
If we describe a word as an autonomous unit of language in which a particular meaning is 
associated with a particular sound complex and which is capable of a particular grammatical 
employment and able to form a sentence by itself we have the possibility to distinguish it from the 
other fundamental language unit, namely, the morpheme. 
A morpheme is also an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. But unlike a 
word it is not autonomous. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not 
independently, although a word may consist of a single morpheme. Nor are they divisible into 
smaller meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful 
language unit. 
The term morpheme is derived from Gr morphe 'form'+ eme. Linguists to denote the smallest unit 
or the minimum distinctive feature have adopted the Greek suffix – eme. (Cf. phoneme, sememe). 

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The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases is a recurring discrete 
unit of speech. 
A form is said to be free if it may stand alone without changing its meaning; if not, it is a bound 
form, so called because it is always bound to something else. For example, if we compare the 
words sportive and elegant and their parts, we see that sport, sportive, elegant may occur alone as 
utterances, whereas eleg – – ive, – ant are bound forms because they never occur alone. A word 
is, by L. Bloomfield's definition, a minimum free form. A morpheme is said to be either bound or 
free. This statement' should be taken with caution. It means that some morphemes are capable of 
forming words without adding other morphemes: that is, they are homonymous to free forms. 
According to the role they play in constructing words, morphemes are subdivided into roots and 
affixes. The latter are further subdivided, according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and 
infixes, and according to their function and meaning, into derivational and functional affixes, the 
latter also called endings or outer formatives. 
When a derivational or functional affix is stripped from the word, what remains is a stem (or a 
stem base). The stem expresses the lexical and the part of speech meaning.1 For the word hearty 
and for the paradigm heart (Sing.) – hearts (Pl.)2 the stem may be represented as heart– This stem 
is a single morpheme, it contains nothing but the root, so it is a simple stem. It is also a free stem 
because it is homonymous to the word heart. 
A stem may also be defined as the part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its 
paradigm. The stem of the paradigm hearty – heartier – (the) heartiest is hearty– It is a free stem, 
but as it consists of a root morpheme and an affix, it is not simple but derived. Thus, a stem 
containing one or more affixes is a derived stem. If after deducing the affix the remaining stem is 
not homonymous to a separate word of the same root, we call it a bound stem. Thus, in the word 
cordial 'proceeding as if from the heart', the adjective-forming suffix can be separated on the 
analogy with such words as bronchia/, radial, social. The remaining stem, however, cannot form a 
separate' word by itself: it is bound. In cordially and cordiality, on the other hand, the stems are 
free. 
Bound stems are especially characteristic of loan words. The point may be illustrated by the 
following French borrowings: arrogance, charity, courage, coward, distort, involve, notion, legible 
and tolerable, to give but a few.3 After the suffixes of these words are taken away the remaining 
elements are: arrog-, char-, cour-, cow-, – tort, – voIve, nat-, leg-, toler-, which do not coincide 
with any semantically related independent words. 
Roots-are main morphemic vehicles of a given idea in a given language at a given stage of its 
development. A root may be also regarded as the ultimate constituent element which remains after 
the removal of all functional and derivational affixes and does not admit any further analysis. It is 
the common element of words within a word-family. Thus, – heart – is the common root of the 

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following series of words: heart, hearten, dishearten, heartily, heartless, hearty, heartiness, 
sweetheart, heart-broken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly, etc. In some of these, as, for example, in 
hearten, there is only one root; in others the root – heart is combined with some other root, thus 
forming a compound like sweetheart. 
57.Classification of affixes according to their meaning. 
Classification of affixes 
Depending on the purpose of research, various classifications of suffixes have been used 
and suggested. Suffixes have been classified according to their origin, parts of speech they 
served to form, their frequency, productivity and other characteristics. 
Within the parts of speech suffixes have been classified semantically according to lexico-
grammatical groups and semantic fields, and last but not least, according to the types of 
stems they are added to. 
In conformity with our primarily synchronic approach it seems convenient to begin with 
the classification according to the part of speech in which the most frequent suffixes of 
present-day English occur. They will be listed together with words illustrating their 
possible semantic force.1 
Noun-forming suffixes: 
-age (bondage, breakage, mileage, vicarage); -ance/-ence2 (assistance, reference); -ant/-ent 
(disinfectant, student); -dom (kingdom, freedom, officialdom); -ее (employee); -eer 
(profiteer); -er (writer, type-writer); -ess (actress, lioness); -hood (manhood); -ing 
(building, meaning, washing); -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation (rebellion, tension, creation, 
explanation); -ism/-icism (heroism, criticism); -ist (novelist, communist); -ment 
(government, nourishment); -ness (tenderness); -ship (friendship); -(i)ty (sonority). 
Adjective-forming suffixes: 
-able/-ible/-uble (unbearable, audible, soluble); -al (formal); -ic (poetic); -ical (ethical); -
ant/-ent (repentant, dependent); -ary (revolutionary); -ate/-ete (accurate, complete); -ed/-d 
(wooded); -ful (delightful); -an/-ian (African, Australian); -ish (Irish, reddish, childish); -
ive (active); -less (useless); -like (lifelike); -ly (manly); -ous/-ious (tremendous, curious); -
some (tiresome); -y (cloudy, dressy). 
Numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (seventh); -ty (sixty). 
Verb-forming suffixes: 
-ate (facilitate); -er (glimmer); -en (shorten); -fy/-ify (terrify, speechify, solidify); -ise/-ize 
(equalise); -ish (establish). 
Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly); -ward/-wards (upward, northwards); -wise 
(likewise). 
If we change our approach and become interested in the lexico-grammatical meaning the 
suffixes serve to signalise, we obtain within each part of speech more detailed lexico-
grammatical classes or subclasses. 

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1 It should be noted that diachronic approach would view the problem of morphological 
analysis differently, for example, in the word complete they would look for the traces of 
the Latin complet-us. 
2 Between forms the sign / denotes allomorphs. See § 5.7. 
96 
Taking up nouns we can subdivide them into proper and common nouns. Among common 
nouns we shall distinguish personal names, names of other animate beings, collective 
nouns, falling into several minor groups, material nouns, abstract nouns and names of 
things. 
Abstract nouns are signalled by the following suffixes: -age, -ance/ -ence, -ancy/-ency, -
dom, -hood, -ing, -ion/-tion/-ation, -ism, -ment, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty.1 
Personal nouns that are emotionally neutral occur with the following suffixes: -an 
{grammarian), -ant/-ent (servant, student), -arian (vegetarian), -ее (examinee), -er (porter), 
-ician (musician), -ist (linguist), -ite (sybarite), -or (inspector), and a few others. 
Feminine suffixes may be classed as a subgroup of personal noun suffixes. These are few 
and not frequent: -ess (actress), -ine (heroine), -rix (testatrix), -ette (cosmonette). 
The above classification should be accepted with caution. It is true that in a polysemantic 
word at least one of the variants will show the class meaning signalled by the affix. There 
may be other variants, however, whose different meaning will be signalled by a difference 
in distribution, and these will belong to some other lexico-grammatical class. Cf. 
settlement, translation denoting a process and its result, or beauty which, when denoting 
qualities that give pleasure to the eye or to the mind, is an abstract noun, but occurs also as 
a personal noun denoting a beautiful woman. The word witness is more often used in its 
several personal meanings than (in accordance with its suffix) as an abstract noun meaning 
‘evidence’ or ‘testimony’. The coincidence of two classes in the semantic structure of some 
words may be almost regular. Collectivity, for instance, may be signalled by such suffixes 
as -dom, -ery-, -hood, -ship. It must be borne in mind, however, that words with these 
suffixes are polysemantic and show a regular correlation of the abstract noun denoting state 
and a collective noun denoting a group of persons of whom this state is characteristic, сf. 
knighthood. 
Alongside with adding some lexico-grammatical meaning to the stem, certain suffixes 
charge it with emotional force. They may be derogatory: -ard (drunkard), -ling (underling); 
-ster (gangster), -ton (simpleton), These seem to be more numerous in English than the 
suffixes of endearment. 
Emotionally coloured diminutive suffixes rendering also endearment differ from the 
derogatory suffixes in that they are used to name not only persons but things as well. This 
point may be illustrated by the suffix -y/-ie/-ey (auntie, cabbie (cabman), daddy), but also: 
hanky (handkerchief), nightie (night-gown). Other suffixes that express smallness are -
kin/-kins (mannikin); -let (booklet); -ock (hillock); -ette (kitchenette). 

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The connotation (see p. 47ff) of some diminutive suffixes is not one of endearment but of 
some outlandish elegance and novelty, particularly in the case of the borrowed suffix -ette 
(kitchenette, launderette, lecturette, maisonette, etc.). 
Derivational morphemes affixed before the stem are called prefixes. Prefixes modify the 
lexical meaning of the stem, but in so doing they seldom affect its basic lexico-grammatical 
component. Therefore both the simple word and its prefixed derivative mostly belong to 
the same part of speech. The prefix mis-, for instance, when added to verbs, conveys the 
meaning ‘wrongly’, ‘badly’, ‘unfavourably’; it does not suggest any other part of speech 
but the verb. Compare the following oppositions: behave : : misbehave, calculate : : 
miscalculate, inform : : misinform, lead : : mislead, pronounce : : mispronounce. The above 
oppositions are strictly proportional semantically, i.e. the same relationship between 
elements holds throughout the series. There may be other cases where the semantic 
relationship is slightly different but the general lexico-grammatical meaning remains, cf. 
giving : : misgiving ‘foreboding’ or ‘suspicion’; take : : mistake and trust : : mistrust. 
The semantic effect of a prefix may be termed adverbial because it modifies the idea 
suggested by the stem for manner, time, place, degree and so on. A few examples will 
prove the point. It has been already shown that the prefix mis- is equivalent to the adverbs 
wrongly and badly, therefore by expressing evaluation it modifies the corresponding verbs 
for manner.1 The prefixes pre- and post- refer to time and order, e. g. historic :: pre-historic, 
pay :: prepay, view :: preview. The last word means ‘to view a film or a play before it is 
submitted to the general public’. Compare also: graduate :: postgraduate (about the course 
of study carried on after graduation), Impressionism :: Post-impressionism. The latter is so 
called because it came after Impressionism as a reaction against it. The prefixes in-, a-, ab-
, super-, sub-, trans- modify the stem for place, e. g. income, abduct ‘to carry away’, 
subway, transatlantic. Several prefixes serve to modify the meaning of the stem for degree 
and size. The examples are out-, over- and under-. The prefix out- has already been 
described (see p. 95). Compare also the modification for degree in such verbs as overfeed 
and undernourish, subordinate. 
The group of negative prefixes is so numerous that some scholars even find it convenient 
to classify prefixes into negative and non-negative ones. The negative ones are: de-, dis-, 
in-/im-/il-/ir-, поп-, ип-. Part of this group has been also more accurately classified as 
prefixes giving negative, reverse or opposite meaning.2 
The prefix de- occurs in many neologisms, such as decentralise, decontaminate ‘remove 
contamination from the area or the clothes’, denazify, etc. 
The general idea of negation is expressed by dis-; it may mean ‘not’, and be simply negative 
or ‘the reverse of, ‘asunder’, ‘away’, ‘apart’ and then it is called reversative. Cf. agree : : 
disagree ‘not to agree’ appear : : disappear (disappear is the reverse of appear), appoint : : 
dis-. appoint ‘to undo the appointment and thus frustrate the expectation’, disgorge ‘eject 
as from the throat’, dishouse ‘throw out, evict’.
59.Productive types of Word formation. 
+Productivity is the ability to form new words after existing patterns which are readily 
understood by the speakers of a language. The most important and the most productive 
ways of word-formation are affixation, conversion, word-composition and abbreviation 
(contraction). In the course of time the productivity of this or that way of word-formation 
may change. Sound interchange or gradation (blood − to bleed, to abide − abode, to strike 

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− stroke) was a productive way of word building in old English and is important for a 
diachronic study of the English language. It has lost its productivity in Modern English and 
no new word can be coined by means of sound gradation. Affixation on the contrary was 
productive in Old English and is still one of the most productive ways of word building in 
Modern English. 
Productive types of word-formation include: 
1. Affixation. 
2. Composition. 
3. Conversion. 
4. Shortening. 
5. Clipping. 
Affixation is the process of coining a new word by adding one or several affixes to some 
root morpheme. 
Classification of affixes. 
From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into native and borrowed 
Noun-forming 
-er 
worker, miner, teacher, painter, etc. 
-ness 
coldness, loneliness, loveliness, etc. 
-ing 
feeling, meaning, singing, reading, etc. 
-dom 
freedom, wisdom, kingdom, etc. 
-hood 
childhood, manhood, motherhood, etc. 
-ship 
friendship, companionship, master-snip, etc. 
-th 

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length, breadth, health, truth, etc. 
Adjective-forming 
-ful 
careful, joyful, wonderful, sinful, skilful, etc. 
-less 
careless, sleepless, cloudless, sense­less, etc. 
-y 
cozy, tidy, merry, snowy, showy, etc. 
-ish 
English, Spanish, reddish, childish, etc. 
-ly 
lonely, lovely, ugly, likely, lordly, etc. 
-en 
wooden, woolen, silken, golden, etc. 
-some 
handsome, quarrelsome, tiresome, etc. 
Verb-forming 
-en 
widen, redden, darken, sadden, etc. 
Adverb-forming 
-ly 
warmly, hardly, simply, carefully, coldly, etc. 
Borrowed affixes are numerous in the English vocabulary. It would be wrong, though, to 
suppose that affixes are borrowed in the same way and for the same reasons as words. An 
af­fix of foreign origin can be regarded as borrowed only after it has begun an independent 
and active life in the recipient language, that is, is taking part in the word-making processes 
of that language. This can only occur when the total of words with this affix is so great in 

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the recipient language as to affect the native speakers' sub­conscious to the extent that they 
no longer realize its foreign flavour and accept it as their own. 
Affixes are classified into productive and non-productive types. By productive affixes we 
mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language 
development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among 
neologisms and so-called nonce-words, i. e. words coined and used only for this particular 
occa­sion. The latter are usually formed on the level of liv­ing speech and reflect the most 
productive and pro­gressive patterns in word-building. 
One should not confuse the productivity of affixes with their frequency of occurrence. 
There are quite a number of high-frequency affixes which, nevertheless, are no longer used 
in word-derivation (e. g. the adjec­tive-forming native suffixes -ful, -ly; the adjective-
forming suffixes of Latin origin -ant, -ent, -al which are quite frequent). 
60.Minor types of Word formation. 
Minor Types of Word-formation 
Apart from the principle types there are some minor types of modern word-formation, they 
are shortening, blending, acronymy, sound interchange, sound imitation, distinctive stress, 
back-formation, and reduplication. 
Shortening 
Shortening is the formation of a new word by cutting off a part of the word. Initial, middle 
and final part of words can be cut off: 
· aphaeresis initial part of the word is clipped, e.g. history → story, telephone → phone; 
· syncope – the middle part of the word is clipped, e.g. madam → ma'am; specs → 
spectacles 
· apocope – the final part of the word is clipped, e.g. professor → prof, vampire → vamp; 
· both initial and final, e.g. influenza → flu, detective → tec. 
Polysemantic words are usually clipped in one meaning only. Let us see the example: the 
word doctor means 1) “someone who is trained to treat people who are ill”; 2) “someone 
who holds the highest level of degree given by a university”. Thus, this word can be clipped 
only in the first meaning, e.g. doc. 
Among shortenings there can be distinguished homonyms, so that one and the same sound 
and graphical lexical unit may represent different words, e.g. vac vacation and vacuum, 
vet veterinary surgeon and veteran. 
Blending 
Blending is the formation of a new word which combines the features of both clipping and 
composition, e.g. boatel (boat + hotel), brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog (smoke + fog), 
modem (modulator + demodulator).
There are several structural types of blends: 
1) initial part of the word + final part of the word, e.g. electrocute (electricity+ execute); 
2) initial part of the word + initial part of the word, e.g. lib-lab (liberal + labour); 
3) initial part of the word + full word, e.g. paratroops (parachute + troops); 
4) full word + final part of the word, e.g. slimnastics (slim + gymnastics). 
Acronymy 
Acronnymy is the formation of a new word by means of the initial letters of parts of a word 
or phrase. Acronyms are commonly used for the names of institutions and organizations. 
No full stops are placed between the letters. All acronyms can be divided into two groups. 
The first group comprises acronyms which are often pronounced as series of letters: EEC 

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(European Economic Community), FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), PC (personal 
computer). 
The second group of acronyms is composed by words which are pronounced according to 
the rules of reading in English: AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), NATO 
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization). Some words of the second group can be written 
without capital letters as they are no longer recognized as acronyms: laser (light 
amplification by stimulated emissions of radiation), radar (radio detection and ranging), 
jeep (general purpose car). 
Like shortenings acronyms can be homonyms as well: MP Member of Parliament, Military 
Police and Municipal Police, PC Personal Computer and Politically correct. 
Sound-interchange 
Sound-interchange is the formation of a new word due to an alteration in the phonemic 
composition of the root of a word. Sound-interchange can be of two types: 1) vowel-
interchange, e.g. full fill; in some cases vowel-interchange is combined with suffixation, 
e.g. long length; 2) consonant-interchange e.g. believe belief. The combination of 
consonant-interchange and vowel-interchange may be found among English words either, 
e.g. life to live. 
Sound imitation or (onomatopoeia) 
New words formed by this type of word-building denote an action or a thing by more or 
less exact reproduction of the sound which is associated with it. Let’s compare such words 
from English and Russian: cock-a-dodoodle-do – ку-ка-ре-ку, bang – бах, бац (сильный 
удар). 
Semantically, according to the source sound, many onomatopoeic words are divided into 
the following groups: 1) words denoting sounds produced by human beings in the process 
of communication or expressing their feelings, e.g. chatter, boor; 2) words denoting sounds 
produced by animals, birds, insects, e.g. moo, buzz; 3) words imitating the sounds of water, 
the noise of metallic things, movements, e.g. splash, scratch, swing. 
Distinctive stress 
Distinctive stress is the formation of a new word by means of the shift of the stress in the 
source word, e.g. 'increase (n) in'crease (v), 'subject (n) sub'ject (v). 
Back-formation 
Backformation is the formation of a new word by cutting off a real or supposed suffix, as 
a result of misinterpretation of the structure of the existing word. This type of word-
formation is not highly productive in Modern English and it is built on analogy, e.g. cobbler
to cobble, blood transfusion to blood transfuse. 
Reduplication 
Some linguists define one more type of word-formation that is reduplication. Most words 
built by reduplication represent informal groups: colloquialisms and slang, e.g. hurdy-
gurdy, walkie-talkie, riff-raff, chi-chi girl. In reduplication new words are formed by 
doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes or with a variation of the root-vowel 
or consonant. For example, bye-bye reduplication of the stem without phonetic changes; 
chit-chat reduplication of the stem with a variation of the root-vowel i into a; walkie-talkie
reduplication of the stem with a variation of the consonant w into t. 
As it can be seen from the examples above, this type of word formation combines features 
of word-combination and sound-interchange. Thus, some scientists may regard such words 
as a special group formed by either wordcombination or sound-interchange. 
61.Etymological Survey of the English word-stock. 
etymological survey of the english word-stock 

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Language as a historical phenomenon. The study of synchrony and diachrony as the basic 
principle of linguistic analysis. The importance of examining the etymology of English 
words, historical causes of their appearance and comparative significance of native and 
borrowed elements. 
The mixed character of the English vocabulary as one of its main features. Words of native 
origin and the role they play in the English language. Their main characteristic features: 
semantic groups they belong to, wide collocability, high frequency of usage, great 
derivational potential. Words of Indo-European stock, words of Common Germanic origin, 
the English proper element. 
Borrowing as the process of adopting words from other languages and as the result of this 
process. The terms "source of borrowings" and "origin of borrowings". The factors, the 
number and character of borrowings as dependent on historical conditions, nature and 
length of the contacts, and proximity of languages. Borrowing through oral speech and 
written speech. Translation-loans. Semantic loans. Hybrids. 
Historical causes of adopting words from Celtic and Scandinavian. The three layers of 
Latin borrowings and their characteristic features. Words borrowed to denote 1) objects 
and notions Germanic people learnt from the Romans, 2) objects and ideas connected with 
church and religion, 3) scientific and artistic terms. Borrowings from French: historical 
conditions and semantic classification of borrowed elements. Borrowings from Greek, 
Italian, Spanish, German. Words of Russian origin in the vocabulary of English. 
Etymological doublets. International words and their importance for EFL teaching. 
+Assimilation of borrowings. Phonetic, grammatical, semantic assimilation. Degree of 
assimilation and factors it depends on. Complete and partial assimilation. Barbarisms 
Diachrony - historical development of the system of language as the object of linguistic 
investigation 
Translation loans(calques, loan translations) - borrowing by means of literary translating 
words (usually one part after another) or word combinations 
Hybrid - a word different elements of which are of etymologically different origin 
Etymological doublets - two or more words originating from the same etymological source, 
but differing in phonetic shape and in meaning 
Borrowing - 1) process of adopting words from other languages to express new concepts, 
to further differentiate the existing concepts and to name new objects, phenomena, etc.; 2) 
the result of this process (words and word building affixes borrowed into the language) 
Source of borrowing - the language from which the word was taken 
Origin of borrowing - the language the word may be traced to 
Semantic loan - the development in the English word of a new meaning due to the influence 
of a related word in another language 
International words - words borrowed by several languages 

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Assimilation of loan words - adjusting to the norms of the recipient language 
Phonetic adaptation (assimilation) - adaptation of a word to the phonetic system of the new 
language 
Grammatical adaptation - a complete change of the former paradigm of the borrowed word 
Semantic adaptation - adjustment to the system of meanings of the vocabulary
+In some cases both forms survive in standard speech, though, as a rule, they have 
developed slightly different meanings: whole (formerly hool) - hale; both were united in 
the old phrase ‘hail and hool’ | no-nay; the latter is now used only to add an amplifying 
remark (‘it is enough, nay too much’), but formerly it was used to answer a question, though 
it was not so strong a negative as no (‘Is it true? Nay.’ ‘Is it not true? No’.) | rear - raise | 
from-fro, now used only in ‘to and fro’ | shirt-skirt | shot-scot | shriek-screak, screech | true-
trigg, ‘faithful, neat, tidy’ | edge-egg vb. (‘to egg on’, ‘to incite’). 
In other cases, the Scandinavian form survives in dialects only, while the other belongs to 
the literary language: dew-dag, ‘dew, thin rain’; vb.’to drizzle’ | leap-loup | neat-nowt, 
‘cattle’ | church-kirk | chest-kist | mouth-mun | yard-garth, ‘a small piece of enclosed 
ground’. All these dialectal forms belong to Scotland or the North of England. 
As a rule, however, one of the forms has in course of time been completely crowded out 
by the other. The surviving form is often the native form, as in the following instances: 
goat-gayte | heathen-heythen, haithen | loath-laith | grey-gra, gro | few-fa, fo | fish-fisk. 
Still there are instances in which the intruder succeeded in ousting the legitimate heir: the 
native ey and the Scandinavian egg [3]. 
62.Phraseology as a branch of Lexicology. 
In linguistics, phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal 
verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as 
phrasemes), in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more 
specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used 
independently. For example, ‘Dutch auction’ is composed of the words Dutch ‘of or 
pertaining to the Netherlands’ and auction ‘a public sale in which goods are sold to the 
highest bidder’, but its meaning is not ‘a sale in the Netherlands where goods are sold to 
the highest bidder’. Instead, the phrase has a conventionalized meaning referring to any 
auction where, instead of rising, the prices fall.Phraseological unitsThe basic units of 
analysis in phraseology are often referred to as phrasemes or phraseological units. 
Phraseological units are (according to Prof. Kunin A.V.)[citation needed] stable word-
groups with partially or fully transferred meanings ("to kick the bucket", “Greek gift”, 
“drink till all's blue”, “drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl)”, “as mad as a 
hatter (as a march hare)”). According to Rosemarie Gläser, a phraseological unit is a 
lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has 
relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations, and 
may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text 
13. conversion (преобразование) 
Conversionis one of the most productive ways of modern English word-building. 
Conversion is sometimes referred to as an affixless way of word-building or even affixless 

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derivation. Saying that, however, is saying very little because there are other types of word-
building in which new words are also formed without affixes (most compounds, contracted 
words, sound-imitation words, etc.). 
Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the 
category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining 
unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of the original one though 
it can more or less be easily associated with it. It has also a new paradigm peculiar to its 
new category as a part of speech. 
nurse, n. 
to nurse, v 
The question of conversion has, for a long time, been a controversial one in several aspects. 
The very 
essence of this process has been treated by a number of scholars (e. g. H. Sweet), not as a 
word-building act, but as a mere functional change. From this point of view the word hand 
in Hand me that book is not a verb, but a noun used in a verbal syntactical function, that is, 
hand (me) and hands (in She has small hands) are not two different words but one. Hence, 
the сазе cannot be treated as one of word-formation for no new word appears. 
According to this functional approach, conversion may be regarded as a specific feature of 
the English categories of parts of speech, which are supposed to be able to break through 
the rigid borderlines dividing one category from another thus enriching the process of 
communication not by the creation of new words but through the sheer flexibility of the 
syntactic structures. 
Nowadays this theory finds increasingly fewer supporters, and conversion is universally 
accepted as one of the major ways of enriching English vocabulary with new words. One 
of the major arguments for this approach to conversion is the semantic change that regularly 
accompanies each instance of conversion. Normally, a word changes its syntactic function 
without any shift in lexical meaning. E. g. both in yellow leaves and in The leaves were 
turning yellow the adjective denotes colour. Yet, in The leaves yellowed the converted unit 
no longer denotes colour, but the process of changing colour, so that there is an essential 
change in meaning. 
The change of meaning is even more obvious in such pairs as hand > to hand, face > to 
face, to go > a go, to make > a make, etc. 
The other argument is the regularity and completeness with which converted units develop 
a paradigm of their new category of part of speech. As soon as it has crossed the category 
borderline, the new word automatically acquires all the properties of the new category, so 
that if it has entered the verb category, it is now regularly used in all the forms of tense and 
it also develops the forms of the participle and the gerund. 
The high productivity of conversion finds its reflection in speech where numerous 
occasional cases of conversion can be found, which are not registered by dictionaries and 
which occur momentarily, through the immediate need of the situation. "If anybody 
oranges me again tonight, I'll knock his face off, says the annoyed hero of a story by 

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O'Henry when a shop-assistant offers him oranges (for the tenth time in one night) instead 
of peaches for which he is looking. 
The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and 
verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by 
conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to 
monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to 
honeymoon, and very many others. 
Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest do I've ever come 
across. Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go — energy), 
make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc. 
Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough (e. g. 
We decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm), etc. 
Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following 
examples show: to down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from 
Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the like of me and the like of 
you). 
63.The general overview to Idioms. 
Every language has its own unique collection of sayings and phrases. These expressions 
often contain meanings that may not be obvious by simply looking at the individual words 
contained therein. We call these expressions “idioms.” 
What Is an Idiom? 
An idiom is a widely used saying or expression that contains a figurative meaning that is 
different from the phrase’s literal meaning. For example, if you say you’re feeling “under 
the weather,” you don’t literally mean that you’re standing underneath the rain. “Under the 
weather” is an idiom that is universally understood to mean sick or ill. 
Idioms often summarize or reflect a commonly held cultural experience, even if that 
experience is now out of date or antiquated. For instance, you might say that someone 
should “bite the bullet” when they need to do something undesirable. The phrase’s origin 
refers to wounded soldiers literally biting down on a bullet to avoid screaming during a 
wartime operation. That common occurrence from the past resulted in a phrase we still use 
today. 
These phrases are also unique to their language of origin. In other words, English idioms 
are different from Spanish or French idioms. 
Idioms are a type of figurative language that can be used to add dynamism and character 
to otherwise stale writing. You can also use idioms to: 
Express Complex Ideas in a Simple Way. Oftentimes, idioms can help express a large or 
abstract idea in a way that is succinct and easy to understand. For instance, you could say 
that two things are impossible to compare to one another, because they possess different 
traits or meanings. Or you could simply say that it’s like “comparing apples to oranges.” 
In this case, the use of an idiom helps to express the same idea in a much simpler way. 
Add Humor To Your Writing. Idiomatic expressions can help transform flat description 
with the help of a funny turn-of-phrase. For instance, rather than describing someone as 

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being not very smart, you could say that he is “not the sharpest tool in the shed” or “not the 
brightest star in the sky.” In addition to conveying that the subject in question is not 
intelligent, the inherent comparison of a person’s brain to a toolbox or a star is unexpected 
and humorous. 
Keep Your Reader Stimulated. By inserting an idiomatic phrase into your writing, you 
force the reader to shift from thinking literally to abstractly. This can help keep the reader 
stay focused and excited, as they must activate a more conceptual part of their brain in 
order to comprehend the idiom’s meaning. By describing someone taking on a larger task 
than they may have been prepared for as “biting off more than they can chew,” you 
encourage the reader to conjure a visual image in their head, which can help keep them 
engaged in your writing. 
Establish a Point of View. Since idioms are often used to express commonly shared or 
universal ideas, there are often dozens of idioms that apply to the same concept. However, 
depending on which idiom you choose, you can convey an entirely different attitude about 
the subject about which you are writing. For example, there many different idioms that 
express the concept of death. If you were to write that someone “passed away,” you are 
using an idiom to describe death in a graceful, delicate way. Alternatively, you could say 
that a person “kicked the bucket,” a much harsher and cruder way of describing the act of 
dying. Though both idioms ultimately mean the same thing, they convey completely 
different attitudes towards death. 
Evoke a Specific Region. Certain idioms are unique to different areas of the world. For 
instance, “that dog won’t hunt” is a common idiom in the Southern United States that 
means that something doesn’t work or make sense. On the other hand, if someone were to 
refer to a mess or a debacle as a “dog’s dinner,” they are likely British. In fiction writing, 
the strategic employment of specific idioms can often add a regional flavor and authenticity 
to your characters. 
Many idiomatic expressions were meant literally in their original use, but sometimes the 
attribution of the literal meaning changed and the phrase itself grew away from its original 
roots—typically leading to a folk etymology. For instance, the phrase "spill the beans" 
(meaning to reveal a secret) is first attested in 1919, but has been said to originate from an 
ancient method of voting by depositing beans in jars, which could be spilled, prematurely 
revealing the results.[3] 
Other idioms are deliberately figurative. For example, "break a leg" is an ironic expression 
to wish a person good luck just prior to their giving a performance or presentation. It may 
have arisen from the superstition that one ought not utter the words "good luck" to an actor 
because it is believed that doing so will cause the opposite result.[4] 
Many idiomatic expressions were meant literally in their original use, but sometimes the 
attribution of the literal meaning changed and the phrase itself grew away from its original 
roots—typically leading to a folk etymology. For instance, the phrase "spill the beans" 
(meaning to reveal a secret) is first attested in 1919, but has been said to originate from an 
ancient method of voting by depositing beans in jars, which could be spilled, prematurely 
revealing the results.[3] 
Other idioms are deliberately figurative. For example, "break a leg" is an ironic expression 
to wish a person good luck just prior to their giving a performance or presentation. It may 
have arisen from the superstition that one ought not utter the words "good luck" to an actor 
because it is believed that doing so will cause the opposite result.[4] 
Examples of idioms 
Here are some common idiom examples: 

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Idiom: “You can’t judge a book by its cover” 
Meaning: Don’t assume you know something based solely on its outward appearance. 
Idiom: “Every cloud has a silver lining.” 
Meaning: Good things come as a result of bad things. 
Idiom: “Once in a blue moon” 
Meaning: Very rarely 
Idiom: “Back to the drawing board” 
Meaning: Restart a process from the beginning 
Idiom: “We'll cross that bridge when we come to it” 
Meaning: We’ll worry about that problem when it arises. 
Idiom: “A penny saved is a penny earned” 
Meaning: It’s just as useful to save money as it is to make money. 
Idiom: “Don’t count your chickens before they hatch.” 
Meaning: Don’t rely on something good happening until it has already happened. 
Idiom: “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush” 
Meaning: It’s better to have something that’s small but certain than the possibility of 
something greater that may never materialize. 
Phrases, expressions and their significance in English. 
Idioms and Phrases are a poetic part of the English language. A set expression of two or 
many words that mean something together, instead of the literal meanings of its words 
individually.People use Idioms to make their language expressive and more poetic. They 
are used to express subtle meanings or intentions. Idioms are generally used to convey the 
meaning of an expression or a word. Sometimes, Idioms and Phrases can be very useful in 
explaining the meaning compared to the literal word. They make the reader understand 
with a poetic touch to the writing. “If natural language had been designed by a logician, 
Idioms would not exist."(Philip Johnson-Laird, 1993).IdiomsAn Idiom is an expression or 
way of speaking that is used in common parlance. They are the amalgamation of words 
that convey a separate meaning altogether. For ExampleHis patience was put to an acid 
test.His patience was not actually put through an acid test but it means that the effectiveness 
of his patience was checked. Most Commonly Used IdiomsA Blessing in 
DisguiseMeaning: A good thing that initially seemed badA Dime a DozenMeaning: 
Something that is very common, not uniqueAdding Insult to InjuryMeaning: To make a 
bad situation even worseBeat Around the BushMeaning: Avoid sharing your true 
viewpoint or feelings because it is uncomfortableBeating a Dead HorseMeaning: Giving 
time or energy to something that is ended or overBite the BulletMeaning: To get an 
unfavorable situation or chore over with now because it will need to get finished 
eventuallyBest of Both WorldsMeaning: The choice or solution has all of the advantages 
of two contrasting things at the same timeBiting Off More Than You Can ChewMeaning: 
Not having the capacity to take on a new assignment or task that is just too taxingBy the 
Skin of Your TeethMeaning: Just barely making itDon’t Judge a Book by Its 
CoverMeaning: Not judging something by its initial appearanceDoing Something at the 
Drop of a HatMeaning: Doing something at the moment of being askedDon’t Count Your 

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Chickens Before They HatchMeaning: Not to count on something happening until after it’s 
already happenedCaught Between a Rock and a Hard PlaceMeaning: Making a choice 
between two unpleasant choicesCosts an Arm and a LegMeaning: Something that is 
overpriced or very expensiveCutting CornersMeaning: Not performing a task or duty 
correctly in order to save time or moneyDevil’s AdvocateMeaning: To take the side of the 
counter-argument, or offer an alternative point of viewFeeling Under the WeatherMeaning: 
Not feeling well, or feeling sickFit as a FiddleMeaning: Being in good healthGetting a 
Taste of Your Own MedicineMeaning: Being treated the way that you have been treating 
othersGetting a Second WindMeaning: Having energy again after being tiredGiving the 
Benefit of the DoubtMeaning: Believing someone’s story without proof even though it may 
seem unbelievableGiving Someone the Cold ShoulderMeaning: Ignoring someoneGoing 
on a Wild Goose ChaseMeaning: Doing something that is pointlessHeard it on the 
GrapevineMeaning: Hearing rumours about someone or somethingHitting the Nail on the 
HeadMeaning: Performing a task with exactnessKilling Two Birds With One 
StoneMeaning: Accomplishing two different tasks in the same undertakingLetting 
Someone Off the HookMeaning: Not holding someone responsible for somethingLetting 
the Cat Out of the BagMeaning: Sharing information that was intended to be a secretNo 
Pain, No GainMeaning: You have to work hard in order to see resultsOn the BallMeaning: 
Doing a good job, being prompt, or being responsibleOnce in a Blue MoonMeaning: 
Something that doesn’t happen very oftenPiece of CakeMeaning: A task or job that is easy 
to completePulling Someone’s LegMeaning: Joking with someoneSpeak of the 
DevilMeaning: When the person you have just been talking about arrivesStealing 
Someone’s ThunderMeaning: Taking credit for someone else’s achievementsStraight from 
the Horse’s MouthMeaning: Reading or hearing something from the sourceThe Last 
StrawMeaning: The last difficulty or annoyance that makes the entire situation 
unbearableThe Elephant in the RoomMeaning: An issue, person, or problem that someone 
is trying to avoidThrowing Caution to the WindMeaning: Being reckless or taking a 
riskYour Guess is as Good as MineMeaning: To not know somethingCan’t Make an 
Omelette Without Breaking Some EggsMeaning: You can’t make everyone happyYou Can 
Lead a Horse to Water, but You Can’t Make Him DrinkMeaning: You can’t force someone 
to make what is seemingly the right decisionClouds on the HorizonMeaning: Trouble is 
coming or is on its wayPhrasesA Phrase is a collection of words that stands together as a 
single unit in a sentence, typically as part of a clause or a sentence.A Phrase does not 
contain any subject and verb so it cannot convey any thought. Examples of PhrasesThere 
are different types of Phrases in the English language. Noun PhraseA group of words that 
consists of nouns and any modifiers.Verb PhraseA group of words that consists of nouns 
and modifiers.Prepositional PhraseA group of words that begins with a preposition and 
helps to explain the relationship between two things. Examples of PhrasesThe brown 
hatBlowing awayIn the windExample of Phrases Put Together in a SentenceThe brown hat 
was blowing away in the wind.Examples of Noun PhrasesThe brown hatMy English 
teacherThe 
grocery 
storeExamples 
of 
Verb 
PhrasesRan 
quicklyHas 
been 
rainingStoppedExamples of Prepositional PhrasesOn the boatAbove the stoveAround the 
cornerEnglish is an enthralling language to learn. It's vibrant and expressive, and well-
crafted prose can take you to another world. Idioms and Phrases are a common tactic used 
by authors to make their words memorable. It is critical that we comprehend the concept 
of Idioms and Phrases, as well as how to use them correctly. Let's get started!Definition of 
IdiomsIdioms are a collection of words or Phrases that have a well-established and well-
known metaphorical meaning. As a result, these words cannot be taken literally because 
they would sound ludicrous. Idioms might sometimes appear to be grammatically strange 
at times.In linguistics, Idioms are a helpful tool. They give the prose more life and color. 
Rather than monotonous paragraphs, it allows the authors to play with words and make it 
an engaging read. Idioms are frequently employed in stories, poems, and even spoken 

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language. The roots of these Idioms aren't always clear, but they're thought to have sprung 
from storytelling and creative writing, and they've evolved over time.Definition of 
PhrasesA Phrase is a combination of words that functions as a single unit. These 
components make it into a larger sentence or clause. Phrases, unlike Idioms, are 
straightforward and to the point. They don't have any figurative interpretations; the term 
means exactly what the words say.A Phrase, unlike a complete sentence, lacks a subject 
and verb. They are a unit of a complete sentence, hence they do not express a complete 
statement. Noun, verb, infinitive, gerund, appositive, participial, prepositional, and 
absolute Phrases are the eight types of Phrases.Now Look at These Idioms With Examples 
and DefinitionsIf it's worth a penny, it's worth a pound.Meaning: When someone invests 
his time or money for a certain project or endeavor, he is doing so on purpose.Example: Jim 
was in for a penny and in for a pound when Athlead was booming, that's how dedicated he 
was.It's better to have one bird in your hand than two in the bush.Meaning: Because time 
does not repeat itself, a current opportunity is preferable to a future prospect.Example: The 
investigator arrested three offenders and noticed a fourth fleeing but chose not to pursue 
him because she understood that a bird in one hand is better than two in the bush.A splinter 
from the pastMeaning: A person's behavior or deeds are similar to those of his 
parents.Example: Grandmother recognized her grandson as a Chip from the old block when 
she saw him accumulating pennies as her son did. 
64.Proverbs, sayings, aphorisms and their importance in English. 
A proverb is a short saying that gives advice or expresses truth. Proverbs aren’t usually literal 
sayings; proverbs use figurative language to make a statement about life. Usually a proverb is 
very well known because of its popular use in colloquial language. Keep reading for proverbs 
examples around the world and their meanings, and learn more about the values people share. 
English Proverbs 
American and British proverbs make up much of English colloquialisms. Some examples of 
English proverbs include: 
“Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.”Meaning: Taking care 
of yourself leads to success and productivity. 
“It's no use locking the stable door after the horse has bolted.”Meaning: Fixing a mistake won’t 
help after the consequences have happened. 
“Laugh and the world laughs with you, weep and you weep alone.”Meaning: People prefer 
sharing good news over bad news. 
“'Tis better to have loved and lost, than never to have loved at all.”Meaning: The experience 
of having loved someone is more valuable than being alone. 
“People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.” 
Meaning: Don’t criticize others for something you also do. 
“The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree.”Meaning: Children often resemble their parents in 
both appearance and behavior. 

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“The poor carpenter blames his tools.”Meaning: Take ownership of your mistakes instead of 
finding blame elsewhere. 
“When you want to make an omelet, you need to break a few eggs.”Meaning: Reaching a goal 
requires sacrifice.
Examples of Proverbs: Wise Words From Around the World 
A proverb is a short saying that gives advice or expresses truth. Proverbs aren’t usually literal 
sayings; proverbs use figurative language to make a statement about life. Usually a proverb is 
very well known because of its popular use in colloquial language. Keep reading for proverbs 
examples around the world and their meanings, and learn more about the values people share. 
example of proverb time is money 
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English Proverbs 
American and British proverbs make up much of English colloquialisms. Some examples of 
English proverbs include: 
“Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.”Meaning: Taking care 
of yourself leads to success and productivity. 
“It's no use locking the stable door after the horse has bolted.”Meaning: Fixing a mistake won’t 
help after the consequences have happened. 
“Laugh and the world laughs with you, weep and you weep alone.”Meaning: People prefer 
sharing good news over bad news. 
“'Tis better to have loved and lost, than never to have loved at all.”Meaning: The experience 
of having loved someone is more valuable than being alone. 
“People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.” 
Meaning: Don’t criticize others for something you also do. 
“The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree.”Meaning: Children often resemble their parents in 
both appearance and behavior. 
“The poor carpenter blames his tools.”Meaning: Take ownership of your mistakes instead of 
finding blame elsewhere. 
“When you want to make an omelet, you need to break a few eggs.”Meaning: Reaching a goal 
requires sacrifice. 
African Proverbs 
Proverbs from African nations educate and inspire those who use them. They may come from 
all over the African continent, but these proverbs express deeply held beliefs shared by 
different African cultures. Here is a list of proverbs from Africa: 

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“A roaring lion kills nothing.”Meaning: You won’t accomplish your goals by talking about 
them. 
"A tree is known by its fruit." Meaning: Success is shown by the deeds. 
“Don’t call a dog with a whip in your hand.”Meaning: People don’t listen to an aggressive 
leader. 
"I have been bitten by a tsetse fly." Meaning: A person will continuously be a pest until you 
pay off a debt. 
“Only a fool tests the depth of a river with both feet.”Meaning: Consider the consequences 
before making a decision. 
“The best way to eat an elephant is to cut him up into pieces.”Meaning: Solve a problem by 
handling it a little at a time. 
“The chameleon changes color to match the earth. The earth doesn’t change colors to match 
the chameleon.”Meaning: If you want something to change, it should be you. 
"The word of friend makes you cry - the word of an enemy makes you laugh." Meaning: A 
friend will tell you the truth, which sometimes hurts, but an enemy will only lead you down 
the wrong path by giving you advice that seems good but is not. 
Asian Proverbs 
Proverbs from China, Japan, India, Korea, and other Asian countries are known around the 
world for their clear and beautiful expressions of wisdom. Some examples of Asian proverbs 
include: 
"A spark can start a fire that burns the entire prairie." Meaning: A small problem can become 
a huge problem that can cause major damage. 
“Complaining is the weak man’s weapon.”Meaning: Strong people solve problems instead of 
complaining about them. 
“Dig the well before you are thirsty.”Meaning: Anticipate your needs before you need 
something. 
"Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day; teach a man to fish and you feed him for a 
lifetime." Meaning: Teaching people is better in the long run because it gives them the skills 
to provide for themselves as opposed to you doing things for them. 
“He who answers is inferior to the one who asks the question.”Meaning: It’s better to be 
curious than knowledgeable. 
“If you plant grass, you won’t get rice.”Meaning: Results match the work you put into them. 
“It is better to travel ten thousand miles than to read ten thousand books.”Meaning: Lived 
experience is more valuable than enjoying it secondhand. 
“The fat buffalo will attract the lean buffalo.”Meaning: Successful people lead by example. 

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"The old horse in the stable still yearns to run." Meaning: Those who are older still have things 
they would like to accomplish. 
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Latin American Proverbs 
Mexican proverbs are known as dichos or refrenes – “sayings” or “refrains.” Whether they are 
from Mexico, Central America, or South America, these proverbs are inspirational additions 
to any conversation. 
“Both reputation and money are earned slowly and lost quickly.”Meaning: It takes a long time 
to build your reputation and earn money, but not very long to lose either. 
“I am in a hurry; therefore, I go slowly.”Meaning: Working methodically is more productive 
than rushing. 
“If you want to dance, pay the musician.”Meaning: If you want something to happen, make it 
happen. 
“It is better to be by yourself than poorly accompanied.”Meaning: Being with the wrong people 
is worse than being alone. 
“He who strikes first, strikes twice.”Meaning: The person who acts first has the advantage. 
“No one is a prophet in their own land.”Meaning: People tend to value exotic and unfamiliar 
experiences rather than what they have in their own lives. 
“Since we cannot get what we like, let us like what we can get.”Meaning: Appreciate what you 
have, even if it’s not very much. 
“The fruit is known by the tree."Meaning: A child’s reputation is determined by their family’s 
reputation. 
“To leisurely youth, laborious old age.”Meaning: If you waste your time when you’re young, 
you’ll work harder when you’re old. 
Arabic Proverbs 
Many Arabic proverbs have made their way into other languages because they are great pieces 
of advice. See how many of the following Arabic proverbs you’ve heard before. 
“An army of sheep led by a lion would defeat an army of lions led by a sheep.”Meaning: 
Leadership is the most important factor in success. 
“Ask your purse what you can buy.”Meaning: Don’t spend more money than you have. 
“Excuses are worse than the original fault.”Meaning: Making excuses for a mistake is worse 
than the mistake itself. 
“If you build a pit for an enemy, you will fall into it.”Meaning: Unkind actions will ultimately 
harm the person doing them. 

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“Secrets are like birds; when they leave your hand, they take flight.”Meaning: You can’t 
control who knows a secret after you’ve told it to someone. 
“The fruit of timidity is neither gain, nor loss.”Meaning: If you don’t stand up for what you 
believe in, nothing will change. 
“Time is money.”Meaning: Wasting time is wasting a valuable resource. 
“What is learned in youth is carved in stone.”Meaning: Childhood experiences affect a person 
forever. 
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Jewish Proverbs 
Jewish proverbs are the cornerstone of Judaism. The most famous list of Jewish proverbs is in 
the Old Testament of the Bible in the Book of Proverbs. Other Jewish proverbs include: 
“Ask about your neighbors before buying the house.”Meaning: Don’t surround yourself with 
negative people. 
“If charity cost nothing, everyone would be a philanthropist.”Meaning: Helping others requires 
self-sacrifice. 
“If you’re too sweet, you’ll be eaten up; if you’re too bitter, you’ll be spat out.”Meaning: Don’t 
let others take advantage of you, and don’t take advantage of others. 
“God could not be everywhere and therefore he made mothers.”Meaning: Mothers will protect 
their children, no matter what. 
“Pride joined with many virtues chokes them all.”Meaning: If you are prideful, it doesn’t 
matter how virtuous you are in other ways. 
“The man who appreciates what he has is the richest man of all.”Meaning: When you are 
satisfied with your life, you are as happy as a rich man. 
“You must endure the bad if you want to live to see the good.”Meaning: Living through 
hardships is part of life. 
Russian Proverbs 
Russian proverbs reflect the tumultuous history of the country and its citizens. Here are some 
Russian proverbs that offer advice for life: 
“A dog in the hay neither eats it nor lets others eat it.”Meaning: Don’t protect what’s not 
worthwhile to you. 
“A word is not a sparrow.”Meaning: When you say something, it can’t be unsaid. 
“Better to stumble than make a slip of the tongue.”Meaning: Saying something wrong can be 
more painful than taking a bad step. 

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“Don’t bring your rules to another person’s monastery.”Meaning: Respect other people’s 
cultures. 
“Don’t teach a wise person.”Meaning: Don’t give advice to people who are more experienced 
that you are. 
“One can’t have two deaths.”Meaning: Take risks in life because you only die once, and it 
probably won’t be today. 
“Work is not a wolf that runs away to the forest.”Meaning: You can finish your work anytime 
– it will still be here when you come back. 
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Using Proverbs 
Proverbs play many roles in society. The first, possibly, most common role that a proverb plays 
is to educate. Most often tossed around as expert advice in conversation, the innate role is to 
educate people on what might happen if they do something. They also reinforce a community’s 
values and colloquial language. Proverbs can inspire someone in need of a kind word and help 
them make decisions for their lives. 
Role of Proverbs in Society 
Think of a proverb as a little tidbit of wisdom that just about everyone – no matter where they 
are from – can offer. There is a proverb for just about every circumstance, whether you hear it 
from a grandparent or a friend from another culture. But not all pithy sayings are considered 
proverbs. Read these examples to find the difference between proverbs, adages and aphorisms. 
Aphorism Definition 
Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term 
is often applied to philosophical, moral, and literary principles.
To qualify as an aphorism, it is necessary for a statement to contain a truth revealed in a terse 
manner. Aphoristic statements are quoted in writings, as well as in our daily speech. The fact 
that they contain a truth gives them a universal acceptance. Scores of philosophers, 
politicians, writers, artists, sportsmen, and other individuals are remembered for their 
famous aphoristic statements. 
Aphorisms often come with a pinch of humor, which makes them more appealing to the 
masses. Proverbs, maxims, adages, and clichés are different forms of aphoristic statements 
that gain prevalence from generation to generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day 
speech. 
Common Aphorism Examples 

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Let us look at some common aphorism examples: 
Youth is a blunder; Manhood a struggle; Old age regret. [Benjamin Disraeli] 
Pride goeth before a fall. [Proverb] 
The man who removes a mountain begins by carrying away small stones. [William Faulkner] 
Life’s tragedy is that we get old too soon and wise too late. [Benjamin Franklin] 
Yesterday is but today’s memory, and tomorrow is today’s dream. [Khalil Gibran] 
The simplest questions are the hardest to answer. [Northrop Frye] 
…even a proverb is no proverb until your life has illustrated it. [John Keats] 
Words are, of course, the most powerful drug used by mankind. [Rudyard Kipling] 
Many pieces of literature are appreciated for the aphorisms they contain, which are often 
cited by scholars as well as laymen.
Function of Aphorism 
As already mentioned in the above discussion, making use of aphorisms allows a writer to 
teach a philosophical or moral truth. The revealed truths prove relevant to human 
experiences of real life. Therefore, readers relate the piece of literature to real life, and 
become more fascinated and vigilant in their reading. 
Moreover, as truths are universal, revealing general truths in literature adds to their universal 
commendation. Motivational speeches quote aphorisms from such sources to inspire 
motivation among individuals. 
66.Lexicography as a tool and the result of lexicological studies 
Lexicography is a branch of Lexicology, which deals with compiling of dictionaries. 
English Lexicography as a prescriptive science began with publication in 1755 of Samuel 
Johnson’s “Dictionary of the English Language in which the words are deduced from their 
originals and illustrated in their different significations by examples from the best writers”. 
The influence of this two-volume book was so great that in 1880 a Bill was thrown out of 
the Parliament because a word in it was not in “the Dictionary”, as S.Johnson’s dictionary 
was named. 
S. Johnson became a linguistic legislator: he fixed the spellings of many disputed words, 
revised some etymologies and exhibited the vocabulary of English more fully than before. 
It is still referred to as “The Dictionary” and the bookstores know it under this name, just 

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like what is meant as “The Bible” or “The Prayer Book”. It had 2500 pages and included 
40 000 glosses/entries. 
History of English Lexicography starts with “Epinale Glossary” from 7thcentury (Epinale 
is a French city where the only copy of this glossary was found). It has definitions of 
difficult Latin and Old English words. The first English-Latin Dictionary was compiled by 
a monk Galfrid from Norfolk in 1440 including translation of 10 000 English words into 
Latin. 
There are 4 periods in English Lexicography: 
1/Glossarization (description of lexicon) 
2/Description of “difficult words” 
3/Prescriptory (normative) 
4/ Scientific (lexicon as a system – Roget’s Thesaurus)/ 
The most authoritative English Dictionary is “A New English Dictionary on Historical 
Principles (1858 – 1928), known as Oxford English Dictionary, including 12 volumes (in 
1933 –Volume 13 with new words was issued). It comprises 414 000 lexical units, 
illustrated with 1 827 306 citations, selected from 6 million references, and includes words 
from 1150 in their historical development. 
American lexicography started with publication of Samuel Jonson’s (namesake of SJ) “A 
School Dictionary” in 1789. Other dictionaries followed mainly describing differences in 
New World lexicon. The most authoritative American Dictionary Noah Webster’s “An 
American Dictionary of the English Language” (1806) published in 1828, including 70 000 
entries. “Look up Webster” is a popular phrase in US when it comesto consulting a 
dictionary. 
The problems of lexicography are numerous. They are: 
1) the selection of items for inclusion and their arrangement; 
2) the setting of the entries; 
3) the selection, arrangement and definition of meanings; 
4) the illustrative examples to be supplied; 
5) the supplementary material. 
The choice among the possible solution of these problems depends upon the type of the 
dictionary, the aims of the compiler and the users of the dictionaries. 
All dictionaries are divided first of all into two big groups: 
encyclopaedic (reference books, Who’s who book, etc.) and linguistic. 
The first are thing-books, the second - word-books. The first give information about 
extralinguistic world, the second - all kinds of intralinguistic information. 
Most famous encyclopaedias are The Encyclopaedia Britannica (24 v.), The Encyclopaedia 
Americana (30 v.), also Oxford Companion to English Literature. 
A linguistic dictionary is a book of words in a language, usually listed alphabetically, with 
definitions, pronunciations, etymologies and other linguistic information or with their 
equivalents in another language. 
Linguistic dictionaries may be divided into different categories by different criteria: 
1) the nature of their word-list; 
2) the information they contain; 
3) the language of the explanations; 
4) the intended user. 
Thus, they may be: 
1) General (units from various spheres) and Restricted Dictionaries (only certain part of 
the word-stock; Etymological D., New WW D.); 
2) Explanatory and Translation Dictionary; 
3) Monolingual and Bilingual Dictionary; 
4) For scholarly users and students 
5) For the general public, etc. 

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The choice of lexical units for inclusion in the prospective dictionary is one of the first 
problems. 
At the first lecture I told you about the object of Lexicology, the lexical units Lexicology 
deals with, the branches of Lexicology and its connections with other linguistic sciences. 
So you know, that lexicology studies the word-stock of the language, which includes 
morphemes, words and various types of word-groups (phrases). The basic task of 
Lexicology is the study and systematic description of the English vocabulary in respect to 
its origin, development and current use. The results of the lexicological research conducted 
in the areas of Semasiology, Etymology, Phraseology, Word-Structure and Word-
Formation are reflected in lexicographic sources, representing generalized linguistic 
knowledge about the vocabulary units. Lexicography is the science of dictionary-
compiling, and it is closely connected with Lexicology. 
They both deal with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origin of vocabulary 
units - and make use of each other’s achievements. 
There are many different types of English dictionaries. The term “dictionary” is used to 
denote a book listing words of a language with their meanings and often with information 
concerning their pronunciation, usage and/or origin. First of all dictionaries may be divided 
into two groups : encyclopaedic and linguistic. Encyclopaedic dictionaries are thing-books 
and linguistic are word-books. Encyclopaedic dictionaries give information about the 
extra-linguistic world and deal with concepts and their relations to each other. 
Linguistic dictionaries give information about vocabulary units and their linguistic 
properties such as pronunciation, meaning, peculiarities of usage, etc. Encyclopaedic 
dictionaries will never enter items like “go”, “that”, “be”, “if”, but only names of 
substances, plants, animals, terms of sciences, some important events in history, famous 
names and other extra-linguistic information. The most well-known encyclopaedias in 
English are The Encyclopaedia Britannica (24 volumes) and The Encyclopaedia 
Americana (in 30 volumes). 
Besides the general encyclopaedic dictionaries there are reference books that give 
information in a definite field of knowledge - literature, arts, theatre, notable persons 
(Who’s Who dictionaries). 
As concept and word-meaning are closely bound up the encyclopaedic and linguistic 
dictionaries often overlap. For practical purposes it is important to know that American 
dictionaries are characterised by including more encyclopaedic information while British 
lexicographers try to present maximum of words. 
Linguistic dictionaries may be monolingual (unilingual) or explanatory, on the one hand, 
and bilingual or translation dictionaries on the other. Multilingual or polyglot dictionaries 
are not numerous, they serve the purpose of comparing synonyms and terminology in 
various languages. 
Both bilingual and monolingual dictionaries can be general and special (restricted). General 
dictionaries contain lexical units from various spheres of life while restricted dictionaries 
make their choice only from a certain part of the word-stock, which is based on the aim of 
the compiler. To general dictionaries belong the thirteen volumes of the New English 
Dictionary on Historical Principles, The Shorter Oxford Dictionary on Historical 
Principles. Besides, their titles show that they contain information about the development 
of words within the written history of the language, and that is why they are etymological 
dictionaries. On the contrary, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (COD) as 
well as A. C.Wyld’s Universal Dictionary of the English Language are synchronic. 
To restricted (or specialised) dictionaries belong terminological, phraseological, dialectal 
word-books, dictionaries of new words, of foreign words, of synonyms, abbreviations, etc. 
Linguistic dictionaries can be divided into those which give a wide range of information 
especially about semantic aspect of the vocabulary and those dealing with lexical units only 

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in relation to some of their characteristics, e.g. only in relation to their etymology, or 
frequency or pronunciation. These are called specialised dictionaries. 
Monolingual dictionaries are often called explanatory dictionaries as it has been stated 
already, they may be diachronic and synchronic, or describe the words of a historical period 
(e.g. Anglo-Saxon Dictionary by J. Bosworth and T. N. Toiler). 
Translation dictionaries (sometimes called parallel) are word-books containing vocabulary 
items in one language and their equivalents in another language. The most representative 
translation dictionary for English is New English-Russian Dictionary edited by professor 
I. R. Galperin. As to specialised dictionaries, they can be phraseological (an Anglo-Russian 
Phraseological Dictionary by professor A. V. Koonin), new words (neologisms) 
dictionaries (The Barnhart Dictionary of New English, of slang words (Dictionary of Slang 
and Unconventional English by E. Partridge, The Dictionary of American Slang by A. 
Wentworth), reverse dictionaries (entry words are arranged starting with their final letters), 
etymological dictionaries - they establish the primary meanings of the present-day words, 
give their parent form, point out the origin of the word, the source of borrowing if it is 
borrowed. Besides, there are special dictionaries of synonyms, proverbs and sayings, 
borrowings, surnames, etc. 
English lexicography is probably the richest in the world with respect to variety and scope 
of dictionaries. The demand for dictionaries is very great. Correct pronunciation and correct 
spelling are of great social importance, because the speech of the upper classes differs 
greatly from the speech of the lower classes. Mispronunciation shows a lack of education 
and “good breeding”, that is why children at school are to consult dictionaries regularly to 
learn the meaning, spelling and pronunciation of words. One of the duties of school 
teachers is to install in their pupils the “dictionary habit”. Do you remember Judy, the girl 
we read about in Lesson 5 in analytical reading ?She bought a dictionary of synonyms to 
enlarge her vocabulary. 
The entries of a dictionary are usually arranged in alphabetical order. In word-formation 
dictionaries they may be given in nests, the first word being the root-morpheme (stem-
forming morpheme) of the following lexical units. 
The most important problems which a lexicographer faces are as follows: 
1) the selection of lexical units; 
2) the arrangement; 
3) the setting of the entries; 
4) the selection and arrangement (grouping) of word -meanings; 
5) the definition of meanings; 
6) illustrative material. 
It would be a mistake to think that dictionaries can list everything in the language. In reality 
only a dictionary of a dead language or a certain historical period of a living language can 
be complete. As to living language it is not possible to present all really occurring lexical 
items (terminology, neologisms, new meanings, etc.). That is why the choice of lexical 
units for inclusion is one of the first problems the lexicographer faces. 
The principles of the choice of lexical units depend on the type of the dictionary, the aim 
the compiler pursue, the prospective user of the dictionary , its size, the linguistic 
conceptions of the dictionary-maker and other reasons. 
The order of arrangement is also different in different dictionaries. In most dictionaries 
entries are given in a single alphabetical order, in many others they are given in nests (in 
subentries or run-ons. Subentries are given after the main entry and include definitions and 
usage labels whereas run-on words are not defined as meaning is clear by their structure as 
they are built after productive patterns). In synonymic sets and its dominant members 
serves as the head-word of the entry. 
One of the most difficult problems is recording the word-meanings and arrangement them 
in the most rational way. There are at least three different ways in which word meanings 

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are arranged: in the sequence of their historical development (called historic order), in 
accordance with frequency of use that is with the most common meaning first (empirical 
or actual order) and in their logical connection (logical order). 
Meaning of words may be defined in different ways: 
1) by means of encyclopaedic definitions; 
2) by means of descriptive definitions or paraphrases; 
3) with the help of synonymous words and expressions; 
4) by means of cross-references. 
It is the descriptive definitions that are used in the majority of the dictionaries. 
The number and the form of the illustrative material differs from a dictionary to a 
dictionary. The purpose of these examples depend on the type of the dictionary and on the 
aim of it. They can illustrate the first and the last known occurrences of the entry word, the 
successive changes in its graphic and phonetic forms and its meaning, the typical patterns 
and collocations, the difference between synonymous words, etc. 
Since different types of dictionaries differ in their aim, size and specialisation, they differ 
in the setting of the entries too. The most complicated type of entry is in the explanatory 
dictionaries. Their entries usually give information about the following properties of the 
word: accepted spelling and pronunciation, grammatical characteristics; definition of 
meanings; modern currency; illustrative examples; sometimes also synonyms and 
antonyms. 
One of the important problems in compiling translation dictionary is to give adequate 
equivalent in the target language. It is not an easy task as the semantic structure of related 
words in different languages never fully coincide. 
To conclude the lecture I should like to mention that for a specialist in linguistics and a 
teacher of foreign languages systematic work with a good dictionary in conjunction with 
his reading is important and necessary. Much valuable material on lexicography can be 
found in special literature in Lexicography 
67.Dictionaries and their types 
There is a vast amount of different dictionaries available for users of the English language. 
All these dictionaries share the aspect that they provide information about English words 
and items, but they are also very different and need to be distinguished from each other. 
One may need a dictionary in one case and the same dictionary may be absolutely useless 
when one tries to solve another problem. 
“Monolingual learners’, general monolingual, and bilingual dictionaries present a problem: 
in spite of what may be advertised on the outside cover of these texts, no single dictionary 
can adequately serve all users. A variety of dictionaries is required to suit the backgrounds, 
needs, and expectations of individual language learners” (BATTENBURG 24). 
So different users and different questions require different dictionaries. One needs to know 
where to find the information asked for in a particular case, and one certainly needs more 
than one dictionary for different aspects of the English language. To avoid getting lost here, 
it is necessary to distinguish between the different types of dictionaries that exist. 
This report provides some suggestions for distinction, amongst other things established 
through empiric research. 
First, an outline of the different types of dictionaries is given, including general dictionaries 
(monolingual, bilingual), learner’s dictionaries, historical dictionaries and encyclopedias. 

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Moreover, the typical structure of an entry in a dictionary is explained, because the 
dictionary entries examined later are mainly checked according to these parts of an entry; 
it is looked what parts they in- or exclude and how the parts are realized. 
After the theoretical part, the empiric research is documented. Five dictionaries 
(monolingual American and British, bilingual English-German, learner’s dictionary, 
historical dictionary) and one encyclopedia are compared in the way that three different 
items (general, encyclopedic, and regional) are looked up and the entries are compared in 
order to find differences and in this way get a guideline how and when to consult what 
dictionary. 
1. Definition: What Is a Dictionary? 
To write about different types of dictionaries first requires a definition of the term 
‘dictionary’ itself. 
“Dictionaries are alphabetically arranged works that provide information, usually in 
concise form, about words or topics” (GIBALDI 8). 
The use of a dictionary has different aspects: information, operations, users and purposes. 
The information can be the meaning of a word, its synonyms, pronunciation, or spelling, 
the etymology, or it can mean information about certain facts or names etc. Under 
operations, actions like finding meanings, finding words, translating something from one 
language into another language etc. are summarized. Users can be children, pupils, trainees, 
teachers, critics, scientists, secretaries, and so on. Their purposes can vary extremely and 
range from learning more about one’s mothertongue to learning a foreign language, from 
solving crossword puzzles to decoding texts in a foreign language and of course cover 
writing reports as well (compare HARTMANN 11). 
As there are various kinds of dictionaries which list all sorts of things in sometimes varying 
ways, the information given can be extremely different in one dictionary compared to 
another. 
First of all, this depends on the size of the dictionary. “To what extend the dictionary can 
answer the questions of the user about any word of the language depends upon the number 
of words to be covered in the dictionary”, and of course on the space that each item is 
granted (TONO 9). 
Second, it depends on the type of dictionary used. These different types of dictionaries, or 
at least some of them, will be looked at closer throughout this report. 
2. Different Types of Dictionaries 
There are, as mentioned above, various types of dictionaries, for all kinds of languages and 
purposes, users and words. But as this report is restricted to some English dictionaries, their 
characteristics and distinctions will be explained. There are some minor distinctive 
features, e. g. the question whether a dictionary is printed or electronic, but as this simply 
refers to the form of presentation and not to the content of the dictionary, it is neglectable 
in this case. Also, this report does not deal with thesauruses, because they are of a very 
different structure than a dictionary, both in their order of entries (not alphabetically but 
categorized) and in the structure of the entries themselves, which contain basically 
synonyms and no definitions, grammar or pronunciations etc. 
The first important distinction is whether one deals with a dictionary or an encyclopedia. 

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2. 1 Dictionaries 
Dictionaries can be divided up into bilingual and monolingual dictionaries. 
Bilingual dictionaries provide translations from one language into another. “Bilingual 
dictionaries are designed so that the language learner can use his source language to 
understand the target language”; e. g. an English-German dictionary contains English 
headwords and German explanations (BATTENBURG 21). 
Monolingual dictionaries, which provide all their information in one language, can be 
divided up further into monolingual dictionaries for native speakers and learner’s 
dictionaries. 
Dictionaries for native speakers are often much more complicated in their use of the 
language, and they sometimes do not give information a learner of a language needs 
because it is information that is obvious for a native speaker. Dictionaries for native 
speakers usually contain a much greater number of headwords than learner’s dictionaries. 
“They list more learned and technical words and are more likely to include biographical 
and geographical entries” and in doing so share aspects of an encyclopedia (GRAMLEY 
10). Important English monolingual dictionaries for native speakers are the Merriam 
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, the Random House Webster’s College Dictionary, or the 
Encarta World English Dictionary for America and the Chamber’s Dictionary, the Collins 
English Dictionary, the Concise Oxford English Dictionary, or the Longman Dictionary of 
the English Language for Great Britain (compare GRAMLEY 10). 
English Learner’s dictionaries are specially designed to meet the needs of a non-native 
speaker of English. 
68.Vocabulary study of words.
Studying vocabulary 
What is important 
A mistake many learners make when starting to study new vocabulary is to translate every 
word and create big lists. By doing this, they are focusing solely on meaning. This is fine 
if all you need to do is understand the word when you encounter it in a reading text. But 
what if you want to use it in your writing? Or your speaking? Or understand it when you 
hear it? In that case, you need to study much more than just the meaning of the word. 
What to study 
What aspects of a word you study will depend on how you want to use it. If you want to 
use it in your writing, you will need to understand about: 
the spelling of the word 
its part of speech 
its usage (any grammar rules associated with the word) 
any common collocations (other words which commonly go with this word) 
If you want to use it when speaking, or understand it when you hear it, then you will also 
need to know: 

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its pronunciation 
Other aspects which are important are: 
the word family, so that you can use it more flexibly in your writing or speaking (especially 
useful for paraphrasing) 
how common the word is (you cannot study every single word!) 
whether the word is an academic (formal) word or not 
Each of these aspects of vocabulary is considered more fully, with examples, in the next 
section. 
69.Grammar in the systematic conception of language. 
Grammar in the systemic conception of language 
Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging 
them in the process of human intercourse. Language is social by nature; it is connected 
with people who are its creators and users; it grows and develops together with the 
development of society. 
Language incorporates the three constituent parts: the phonological system, the lexical 
system, the grammatical system. The unity of these three elements forms a language. The 
phonological system determines the phonetical appearance of units; the lexical system is 
the whole set of naming means of language (words and word-groups). The grammatical 
system is the whole set of regularities determining the combination of naming means in the 
formation of utterances as the embodiment of thinking process. 
Each of the three constituent parts of language is studied by a particular linguistic 
discipline. The phonological description of language is effected by the science of 
phonology; the lexical description of language is effected by the science of lexicology; the 
grammatical description of language is effected by the science of grammar. 
Any linguistic description has a practical or theoretical purpose. A practical description is 
aimed at providing the student with a manual of practical mastery of the corresponding part 
of language. The theoretical linguistic description is aimed to explain the inner structure of 
language and the mechanisms of its functioning. The aim of theoretical grammar of a 
language is to present a theoretical description of its grammatical system, i.e. to analyse 
and define its grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of grammatical formation 
of utterances out of words in the process of speech making. 
Morphemic structure of words 
The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic 
structure of words. Morphology is a part of grammatical theory, which faces the two 
segmental units: the morpheme and the word. 
The word is a complex and many-sided phenomenon. The word can be defined as the 
minimal potential sentence, the minimal free linguistic form, the elementary component of 
the sentence, the articulate sound-symbol, the grammatically arranged combination of 
sound with its meaning, the uninterrupted string of morphemes, etc. None of these 
definitions can cover all the lexical segments of language. Let’s point out the properties of 
the morpheme and the word, which are fundamental from the point of view of their 
systemic status. 

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The morpheme is a meaningful segmental component of the word; the morpheme is formed 
by phonemes; as a meaningful component of the word it is elementary (it is indivisible into 
smaller segments). 
The word is a nominative unit of language; it is formed by morphemes; it enters the lexicon 
of language as its elementary component; together with other nominative units the word is 
used for the formation of the sentence – a unit of information in the communication process. 
In traditional grammar the study of the morphemic structure of the word was conduced in 
the light of the two basic criteria: 
- positional criterion – the location of the marginal morphemes in relation to the central 
ones; 
- semantic or functional criterion – the correlative contribution of the morphemes to the 
general meaning of the word. 
Categorial structure of the word 
Notional words possess some morphemic features expressing grammatical 
(morphological) meanings. These features determine the grammatical form of the word. 
The grammatical form units a whole class of words. Each word of the class expresses the 
corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete meaning. 
The most general meanings are interpreted in linguistics as categorical grammatical 
meanings. The categorical meaning (e.g. grammatical number) unites the individual 
meaning of the correlated paradigmatic forms (e.g. singular – plural). 
The grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning 
by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical form. 
The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorical function constitutes a 
paradigm. 
The paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms in a category is exposed by 
“grammatical opposition”. Grammatical opposition is a generalized correlation of lingual 
forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements 
(members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and 
differential features. Common features serve as the basis of contrast, while differential 
features immediately express the function in question. 
The most important type of opposition is the binary privative opposition. The binary 
privative opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is 
characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature (mark), while the other 
member is characterized be the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature 
is present is called “mark”, “strong” or “positive” and is designated by the symbol + (plus). 
The member in which the feature is absent is called the “unmarked”, “weak” or “negative” 
member, and is designated by the symbol – (minus). (past –present: We worked (strong 
member) – We work (weak member). 
Grammatical classes of words 
The words of language are divided into grammatically relevant sets of classes. The 
traditional grammatical classes of words are called “parts of speech”. Modern principles of 

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part of speech identification have been formulated as a result of painstaking research. The 
three conducted names are especially notable for the elaboration of these criteria: 
V.V.Vinogradov in connection with his study of Russian grammar, A.I.Smirnitsky and 
B.A.Ilyish in connection with their study of English grammar. 
In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: 
“semantic”, “formal”, and “functional”. These factors of categorical characterization of 
words are referred to meaning, form and function. 
The semantic criterion presupposes the evaluation of the generalized meaning, which is 
characteristic of all the subsets of words constituting a given part of speech. This meaning 
is understood as the “categorial meaning of the part of speech”. 
The formal criterion provides for the exposition of the specific inflexional and derivational 
(word-building) features of all the lexemic subsets of a part of speech. 
The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a 
part of speech. 
Words on the upper level of classification are divided into notional and functional, which 
reflects their division in the earlier grammatical tradition into changeable and 
unchangeable. 
Notional parts of speech are words of complete nominative meaning characterized by self-
dependent functions in the sentence. 
70.Dimensions and levels of linguistic analysis. 
Dimensions are syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
between units of language. As a result of their potentiality of occurrence in a definite 
context or
sentence lingual units such as, morphemes, phonemes, lexemes go into relations of two 
distinctive
types. They are often called syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations in scientific literature. 
Key words: dimension, linguistic analysis, literature. 
When lingual units join with others along a horizontal dimension, they enter into
syntagmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations are direct linear relations between units of
language of the same level in a segmental order. 
For example: “My little brother watered beautiful flowers in our garden.”
In this following sentence the words and word-groups are syntagmatically related.

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They are: brother, my little brother, watered, my little brother watered, watered
beautiful flowers, beautiful flowers, watered in our garden.
Morphemes of the words in this sentence are also connected syntagmatically. E.g.:
flower/s, water/ed, beauty/ful. 
Phonemes and graphemes are connected syntagmatically within morphemes and
words. For example: b/r/o/t/h/e/r, g/a/r/d/e/n. 
The combination of two words or word-groups in a segmental string, one of which
is followed by the other, forms a unit which is referred to as a syntactic
“syntagma.”There are 4 basic kinds of theoretical syntagmas:
presses a combination of a subject and a
predicate.
For example: My uncle grows wheat in the field every year. In the following
sentence “My uncle grows” is a predicative syntagma. 
s
object. For instance: grows wheat 
attribute. For example: My uncle 
notional word, such as a verb, adjective or adverb, with its adverbial modifier. 
For instance: grows in the field( a verb with its adverbial modifier of place);
grows every year (a verb with its adverbial modifier of time).
Predicative syntagma is different from the other syntagmas, due to the fact of that
the relation between its members is of mutual nature in a predicative syntagma. For
instance, in this following sentence the subject dominates the predicate defining the
person and number of predication (e.g. grows = 3rdperson, singular), while the predicate
dominates the subject, ascribing to it some action, state or quality (My uncle grows).

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Since syntagmatic relations are actually observed in speech, they are described by the
Latin formula as relations “in praesentia”.
The other kind of relations is called paradigmatic; it exists between elements of
the system outside the strings where they co-occur. Elements enter into paradigmatic
relations when they have the same potential to appear in the same context and
functionally substitute each other. We have syntagmatic elements in a sequence along
the horizontal dimension, while along the vertical dimension we have paradigmatic
elements in substitution.
Well-known Uzbek linguist A.T. Iriskulov emphasized that there are two
types of relations between words in languages: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. 
1) paradigmatic bond is a connection among the classes of linguistic units/words
combined by the existence of some certain common features, e.g. 
a) asking, sitting, barking, sleeping (all these words have common –ing ending); 
b) ask, asking, asks, asked, has asked, be asked (in this case it is stem “ask” is
common); 
2) Syntagmatic connection is a bond among linguistic units in a lineal succession
in the connected speech. Syntagmatic connection between words or group of words is also 
called a syntactic bond. 
p I go to school every day. 
a You go to school every day. 
r He go+es to school every day. 
a She go+es to school every day. 
d.r. They go to school every day 
In these following examples the pronouns-I, you, he, she, they-combine with each
other along a vertical dimension, they enter into paradigmatic relations. The words and
word groups (go, school, go to school, goes every day) combine with the others along
a horizontal dimension, they enter into syntagmatic relation. 

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Paradigmatic relations between lingual elements are especially obvious in
classical paradigms of grammatical categories of parts of speech. The minimal
paradigm consists of two oppositional forms. For example, we can see this type of
paradigm in the expression of the category of number of nouns:
Desk-desks 
Toy-toys
As well as such paradigms are followed in the expression of grammatical
categories of adjectives and verbs. For instance, the category of degrees in adjectives:
large-larger-largest; the category of tense in verbs: clean-cleans –cleaned-is cleaning. 
Different from syntagmatic relations, paradigmatic relations between the forms of
language cannot be directly observed in sentences, so they are considered as relations
“in absentia” (“in the absence”). The lingual elements at any branches of language are
systematized along these two dimensions. They combine into larger structures along
the syntagmatic or horizontal linear. For instance, letters or sounds join to make
morphemes; morphemes combine to form words; words combine to make phrases;
phrases combine to form sentences; sentences combine to make up a text. When
different lingual elements have the same potential to take place in the same structural 
context and are therefore equivalent in function, they are paradigmatically associated
as members of the same class of items.
It is necessary to see that this two-dimensional mode of organization provides the
potential to generate infinite expressions from a limited number of language means.
Besides this, these two interdependent dimensions or relations between lingual
elements represent the basic principles for the linguistic analysis at all levels. In modern
linguistics language is regarded as a system of signs which is structured by the principle
of hierarchy of levels of lingual units. The peculiarity of this hierarchy lies in the
fact that units of any higher level are analyzable into units of the immediately lower

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ones. 
For instance: 
Phonemes morphemes words phrase sentences text
However, this hierarchical relation doesn’t mean that it may be leveled to the
mechanical combination of larger units of language from the smaller ones. Units of
each level are classified by their own, definite functional elements according to which
they distinguish from each other.
What is the linguistic level? Language consists of definite levels or strata.
According to the linguists’ researches there are 2 types of levels: primary and
secondary levels. Uzbek linguist A.T. Iriskulov termed them differently such as, basic
and non-basic levels. This difference between them relies on if a level has got its own
unit or not. If a level has its own unit then this level is qualified as basic. If a level
doesn't have a unit of its own then it is a non – basic. That’s why the quantity of level
completely depends on the number of lingual units. 
There are a number of ideas on this matter: some linguists state that there are four
units such as phoneme-phone, morpheme-morph, lexeme-lex and sentence; others
believe that there are five units like phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, word - 
combinations or phrases and sentences. Yet others emphasized that in addition to the
mentioned ones there are paragraphs, utterances and texts. As one can see there's no
unity in the number of language and speech units. The most well-known opinion is that
there are five units of language (speech) and correspondingly there are five language 
levels, they are: phonetic/phonological; morphological; lexicological, syntax - minor
and syntax - major.
The levels and their units are as follows: 
•phonological/phonetic level: phoneme/phone 
•morphological level: morpheme/morph 

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•lexicological level: lexeme/lex 
•Syntax - minor: sentence 
•Syntax - major: text 
Secondary level or non-basic level is characterized by having no unit of its own.
For instance, stylistics can be said to be non – basic (secondary) due to the fact of that
this level has no its own unit. In order to achieve its aim it makes wide use of the units
of the primary levels. The stylistics studies the expressive means and stylistic devices
of languages. Famous Russian linguist I.R.Galperin said:"The expressive means of a
language are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of word -building,
and lexical, phraseological and syntactical form, all of which function in the language
for emotional or logical intensification of the utterance. These intensifying forms of
the language, wrought by social usage and recognized by their semantic function have
been fixed in grammars, dictionaries". 
While talking about the levels we have to reveal the difference between language
and speech because the linguistics distinguishes language units from speech units. 
According to F. de Saussure’s theories, the basic difference between
language and speech is in the following: 
1) language is abstract and speech is concrete; 
2) language is common, general for all the bearers while speech is individual; 
3) language is stable, less changeable while speech tends to changes; 
4) language is a closed system, its units are limited while speech tend to be
openness and endless. 
71.Morphology as the study of internal structure of words. 
Morphology is the aspect of language concerned with the internal structure of words, and 
languages vary in the extent to which they rely on morphological structure. Consequently, 
it is not clear whether morphology is a basic element of a linguistic structure or whether it 
emerges from systematic regularities between the form and meaning of words. Here, we 
looked for evidence of morphological structure at a neural systems level by using a visual 
masked priming paradigm and functional MRI. Form and meaning relations were 
manipulated in a 2 × 2 design to identify reductions in blood oxygenation level-dependent 

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signal related to shared form (e.g., corner-corn), shared meaning (e.g., idea-notion), and 
shared morphemes (e.g., boldly-bold, which overlapped in both form and meaning). 
Relative to unrelated pairs (e.g., ozone-hero), morphologically related items reduced blood 
oxygenation level-dependent signal in the posterior angular gyrus bilaterally, left 
occipitotemporal cortex, and left middle temporal gyrus. In the posterior angular gyrus, a 
neural priming effect was observed for all three priming conditions, possibly reflecting 
reduced attentional demands rather than overlapping linguistic representations per se. In 
contrast, the reductions seen in the left occipitotemporal cortex and left middle temporal 
gyrus corresponded, respectively, to main effects of orthographic and semantic overlap. As 
neural regions sensitive to morphological structure overlapped almost entirely with regions 
sensitive to orthographic and semantic relatedness, our results suggest that morphology 
emerges from the convergence of form and meaning. 
72.Basic notions of morphology: grammatical category. 
73.The parts of speech are classes of words, all the members of these classes having certain 
characteristics in common which distinguish them fr om the members of other classes. The 
problem of word classification into parts of speech still remains one of the most controversial 
problems in modern linguistics. The attitude of grammarians with regard to parts of speech and 
the basis of their classification varied a good deal at different times. Only in English grammarians 
have been vacillating between 3 and 13 parts of speech. There are four approaches to the problem: 
1. Classical (logical-inflectional) 
2. Functional 
3. Distributional 
4. Complex 
The classical parts of speech theory goes back to ancient times. It is based on Latin grammar. 
According to the Latin classification of the parts of speech all words were divided dichotomically 
intodeclinableand indeclinableparts of speech. This system was reproduced in the earliest English 
grammars. The first of these groups, declinable words, included nouns, pronouns, verbs and 
participles, the second – indeclinable words – adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and 
interjections. The logical-inflectional classification is quite successful for Latin or other languages 
with developed morphology and synthetic paradigms but it cannot be applied to the English 
language because the principle of declinability/indeclinability is not relevant for analytical 
languages. 
A new approach to the problem was introduced in the XIX century by Henry Sweet. He took into 
account the peculiarities of the English language. This approach may be defined as functional. He 
resorted to the functional features of words and singled out nominative units and particles. 
Tonominative parts of speech belonged noun-words (noun, noun-pronoun, noun-numeral, 
infinitive, gerund), adjective-words (adjective, adjective-pronoun, adjective-numeral, participles), 
verb (finite verb, verbals – gerund, infinitive, participles), while adverb, preposition, conjunction 
and interjectionbelonged to the group of particles. However, though the criterion for classification 
was functional, Henry Sweet failed to break the tradition and classified words into those having 
morphological forms and lacking morphological forms, in other words, declinable and 
indeclinable. 
A distributionalapproachto the parts to the parts of speech classification can be illustrated by the 
classification introduced by Charles Fries. He wanted to avoid the traditional terminology and 

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establish a classification of words based on distributive analysis, that is, the ability of words to 
combine with other words of different types. At the same time, the lexical meaning of words was 
not taken into account. According to Charles Fries, the words in such sentences as 1. Woggles 
ugged diggles; 2. Uggs woggled diggs; and 3. Woggs diggled uggles are quite evident structural 
signals, their position and combinability are enough to classify them into three word-classes. In 
this way, he introduced four major classes of words and 15 form-classes. Let us see how it worked. 
Three test framesformed the basis for his analysis: 
Frame A - The concert was good (always); 
Frame B - The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly); 
Frame C – The team went there. 
It turned out that his four classes of words were practically the same as traditional nouns, verbs, 
adjectives and adverbs. What is really valuable in Charles Fries’ classification is his investigation 
of 15 groups of function words (form-classes) because he was the first linguist to pay attention to 
some of their peculiarities. 
All the classifications mentioned above appear to be one-sided because parts of speech are 
discriminated on the basis of only one aspect of the word: either its meaning or its form, or its 
function. 
In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated according to three criteria: semantic, 
formal and functional. This approach may be defined as complex. The semantic criterion 
presupposes the grammatical meaning of the whole class of words (general grammatical meaning). 
The formalcriterion reveals paradigmatic properties: relevant grammatical categories, the form of 
the words, their specific inflectional and derivational features. The functionalcriterion concerns 
the syntactic function of words in the sentence and their combinability. Thus, when characterizing 
any part of speech we are to describe: a) its semantics; b) its morphological features; c) its syntactic 
peculiarities. 
The linguistic evidence drawn fr om our grammatical study makes it possible to divide all the 
words of the language into: 
1. those denoting things, objects, notions, qualities, etc. – words with the corresponding references 
in the objective reality – notionalwords; 
2. those having no references of their own in the objective reality; most of them are used only as 
grammatical means to form up and frame utterances – functionwords, or grammaticalwords. 
74The words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into 
grammatically rele­vant sets or classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words are called 
"parts of speech". Since the word is dis­tinguished not only by grammatical, but also by semantico-
lexemic properties, some scholars refer to parts of speech as "lexicogrammatical" series of words, 
or as "lexicogrammatical categories" 
It should be noted that the term "part of speech" is purely traditional and conventional, it can't be 
taken as in any way defining or explanatory. This name was introduced in the grammatical 
teaching of Ancient Greece, where the con­cept of the sentence was not yet explicitly identified in 
dis­tinction to the general idea of speech, and where, consequent­ly, no strict differentiation was 
drawn between the word as a vocabulary unit and the word as a functional element of the 
sentence.In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: 
"semantic", "formal", and "functional". The semantic criterion presupposes the evalu­ation of the 
generalized meaning, which is characteristic of all the subsets of words constituting a given part 
of speech. This meaning is understood as the "categorial meaning of the part of speech". The 
formal criterion provides for the exposition of the specific inflexional and derivational (word-

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building) features of all the lexemic subsets of a part of speech. The functional criterion concerns 
the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech. The said three factors of 
categorial characterization of words are con­ventionally referred to as, respectively, "meaning", 
"form", and "function".The problem of parts of speech is one that causes great controversies both 
in general linguistic theory and in the analysis of separate languages. We shall have to examine 
here briefly a few general questions concerning parts of speech which are of some importance for 
Modern English. 
The term "parts of speech" (as well as the corresponding terms in Russian, German, French, and 
other languages), though firmly established, is not a very happy one. What is meant by a "part of 
speech" is a type of word differing from other types in some grammatical point or points. To take 
the clearest example of all, the verb is a type of word different from all other types in that it alone 
has the grammatical category of tense. Thus, while it is perfectly reasonable to ask, "What is the 
past tense of the word live?" (the answer of course is, lived), it would make no sense to ask, "What 
is the past tense of the word city?" or "What is the past tense of the word big?" Those words just 
have not got any past tense, or any tense whatever, for that matter: the notion of tense cannot be 
applied to them. Tense is one of the distinctive features characterising the verb as against every 
other type of word. However, the question is much less simple with reference to some other types 
of words, and a general definition of the principles on which the classification of parts of speech 
is based becomes absolutely necessary. 
75Verb is a part of speech with grammatical meaning of process, action. Verb performs the central 
role of the predicative function of the sentence. 
Verb is a very complex part of speech and first of all because of it’s various subclass division. If 
we admit the existence of the category of finitude as Prof.Blokh does that we’re divide all the 
verbs into 2 large sets: the finite set and non-finite set. 
They are profoundly different from each other. Here we will talk about the finite verbs. As we 
have said the general processual meaning is in the semantics of all the verbs including those 
denoting states, forms of existence and combinability. It mainly combines with nouns and with 
adverbs. Syntactical function is that of the predicate, because the finite verb expresses the 
processual categorial features of predication that is time, voice, aspect and mood. Verbs are 
characterized by specific forms of word-building. The stems may be simple ex: go, take, read. 
Sound replacive: food-feed, blood-bleed. Stress replacive ex; Import-impOrt 
The composite verb stems ex: to black mail. 
According to their semantic structure the finite verbs are divided into: 
notional which possess full lexical meaning 
seminotional – they have very general faded lexical meaning 
a. auxiliary verbs - they perform purely grammatical function 
b. modal verbs - they express relational meaning, ability, obligation and so on. 
auxiliary – no lexical meaning, only grammatical //do, be 
c. link verbs -introducing predicative which is expressed by noun,adj,phrase (to seem) 
Here we’re to mention of the existence of the notional link verbs, this are verbs which have the 
power to perform the function of link verbs and they preserve their lexical value. Ex:The Moon 
rose red. Due to the double syntactic character, the hole predicate is reffered to as a double 
predicate (a predicate of double orientation) 
Notional verbs - the 1-st categorization on the basis of the subject process relation. The verbs are 
divided into actional and statal. 

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Actional - express the action, performed by the subject (do, act, make) 
Statal verbs - they denote the state of their subject (be, stand, know) 
This criteria apply to more specific subsets of words: ex: The verbs of mental process, here we 
observe the verbs of mental perception and activity, sensual process (see-look) 
The 2-nd categorization is based on the aspective characteristic. Too aspective subclasses of verbs 
should be recognized in English limitive (close,arrive) and unlimitive (behave,move). The basis 
of this division is the idea of a processual limit. That is some border point beyond which the process 
doesn’t exist. 
The 3-rd categorization is based on the combining power of the verbs. The combing power of 
words in relation to other words in syntactically subordinate positions is called their syntactic 
valency. Syntactic valency may be obligatory & optional. The obligatory adjuncts are called 
complements and optional adjuncts are called supplements. According as verbs have or don’t have 
the power to take complements, the notional words should classed as complimentive (transitive 
and intransitive)or uncomplimentive (personal and impersonal) 
Terminative – denote actions which can’t develop beyond a certain limit (to stand up, to sit down, 
to come, to take). 
Non-terminative – have no limit (to love, to sit, to work, to walk) 
76 The grammatical categories of the verb. 
The category of person 
The category of person represents an action as associated by the speaking person with himself, 
that is the first person, with the person or persons addressed. That is the second person and with 
persons not-participating in the process of speech (the 3d person). The category ofperson is 
expressed in the singular form of the present tense of the indicative mood in the future tense and 
in the future in the past tense in the indicative mood and in the conditional mood. From the point 
of view of information of the category of person verbs may be divided into 3 subclasses: 
i. The first subclass includes the verbs TO BE and TO HAVE 
ii. The second – includes all other verbs with the exception of modal verbs . The verbs of this 
subclass form the 1st and the 2nd persons by meaning the zero-morpheme and the 3rd person 
singular by means of the overt morpheme – s. Fex – I speak – you speak – he speaks 
iii. The 3rd subclass includes modal verbs with the exception of the verbs TO HAVE TO and TO 
BE TO. Modal verbs have no inflexion in the present tense thus in this verbs the category of person 
isn`t expressed. In the future tense of the indicative mood in the future in the past in the conditional 
mood the category of person is expressed by means of the auxiliary verb should for the 1st person 
will or would for other persons. But the category of person in the future tense is being gradually 
lost because of the wide use of shortened forms -`ll -`d . Fex – I`ll go there. If I were you I`d help 
them.The category of number 
The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the singular form and the plural form. 
The singular form shows that the action is associated with one doer of the action. 
The plural form shows that the action is associated with more than one doer. 
The forms of the category of number are not numerous in modern English. They are: 
· The –s ending in the 3rd person singular in the present tense which distinguished the 3rd person 
singular from the 3rd person plural 
· The verbs TO BE and TO HAVE which have different forms of number in the present indefinite 
tense and in the past indefinite tense for the verb TO BE and in the present indefinite tense for the 
verb TO HAVE. 

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It`s not expressed in the future tense and in the future in the past and in the conditional mood. In 
most of the cases only the combinability with the subject indicates the personal number of the 
verb. Therefore the subject is almost never dropped in an English sentence.The category of tense 
It shows the relation of the time of the action denoted by the verb to the moment of speech. The 
time of any action or event can be expressed lexically with the help of such words and expressions 
as: yesterday, now, next week, on the 15th of November. It can also be shown grammatically by 
means of the category of tense. The difference between the lexical expression of time in the 
following. 
1) Lexically it`s possible to name any definite moment at period of time. 
Fex – It happened last year. It happened centuries ago. It happened some minutes ago. 
The grammatical meaning of time is an abstraction from 3 particular tenses: the present the past 
and the future. 
2) Lexically the period of time is named directly. The grammatical indication of time is indirect. 
Fex – The form asked shows that the action took place before the past moment of speech. 
The form will ask indicates that the action will take place after the moment of speech. 
So the gramm-meaning of tense is relative (относительн.) the form asks denotes the present action 
because it is contrasted with asked which denotes the past action and theform will ask which 
denotes a future action. 
Most grammarians agree that there are 3 tenses of the English verbs: past, present, future. 
77 The system of grammatical category of verb: aspect, voice, mood. 
78 . Sentence as the main unit of syntax 
The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built according to a definite syntactic pattern 
and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose (Bloch) In speech sentences 
are not given ready-made, they are created by the speaker. But they are built according to patterns 
existing in the language. So, concrete sentences belong to speech, while patterns to language. 
The sentence, being composed of words, may in certain cases include only one word of various 
lexico-grammatical standing. Cf.: Night. Congratulations. Away! Why? Certainly. 
The actual existence of one-word sentences, however, does not contradict the general idea of the 
sentence as a special syntactic combination of words. 
Moreover, this fact cannot lead to the idea that the sentence and the word may wholly coincide: a 
word-sentence as a unit of the text is radically different from a word-lexeme as a unit of lexicon, 
the differentiation being inherent in the respective places occupied by the sentence and the word 
in the hierarchy of language levels.Being a unit of speech, the sentence is intonationally delimited. 
Intonation separates one sentence from another in the continual flow of uttered segments. The role 
of intonation as a delimiting factor is especially important for sentences which have more than one 
predicative centre, in particular more than one finite verb. Cf.: 
The class was over, the noisy children fitted the corridors. 2) The class was over. The noisy 
children filled the corridors. 
It has 2 basic functions: 
Naming (names a situation, event); 
Communicative 
A. Gardiner and Y.M. Skrebnev are of opinion that the only relevant feature of the sentence is its 
ability to serve the purpose of communication, i.e. they view the sentence as a unit of 
communication. 

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The communicative function does differentiate the sentence from the phoneme, the morpheme, the 
word, the word form, and the word combination. But the communicative function cannot be 
regarded as a distinguishing feature of the sentence either, for it is also common to units larger 
than the sentence and to language as a whole. 
The sentence names situations and events of objective reality and convey information, expressing 
complete thoughts or feelings. So, the sentence is a structural semantic and communicative unity. 
Accordingly the 3 main aspects of the sentence are syntactic, semantic, and logico- 
communicative.The syntactic structure of the sentence can be analyzed at 2 levels: 
Pre-functional (the level of combinability) 
Members of the sentence are discussed in terms of words and word groups irrespectively to their 
functions in the sentence; 
Functional 
Syntactic level- the modal of the members of the sentence (syntactic features); 
Semantic level – case grammar – the modal of the sentence as the preposition structure ( semantic 
structure); 
Communicative level – sentences as a unit of speech- FSP – functional sentence perspective- the 
logico – communicative structure; 
There is no correspondence between units of those levels. 
John wrote a letter. –NVN-SPO 
John had a snack. - NVN-SP 
The semantic structure of the sentence is a reflection of a certain situation or event which includes 
a process as its dynamic centre, the doer and the objects of the process and certain circumstances 
and conditions of its realization. 
The semantic structure of the sentence is often called deep structure; the syntactic structure is 
called surface structure. There is no direct correspondence between deep and surface structure. 
John opened the door. NVN (SPO)- doer (agent), action, object; 
The key opened the door. NVN (SPO)- instrument, action, object; 
These 2 aspects characterize the sentence as a unit of speech of language. Logico –communicative 
aspect characterizes the sentence as a unit of speech, or utterance. The sentence as a unit of 
communication usually consists of 2 parts: the topic for discussion ( smth, about which a statement 
is made) and the information about the topic( or a statement itself). 
This division into 2 parts, the theme and the rheme, is called the actual sentence division (the 
functional sentence prospective). 
There is one more aspect of the sentence as a unit of speech- the use of sentence in social 
interaction, their function in particular contexts of use. For example, the statement I have no 
cigarettes can be interpreted in certain context as a command or requests. So, the sentences can be 
analyzed from the point of view of the intentions of the speaker, the effect of the utterance on the 
interlocutor, the appropriateness of an utterance in a given context. This aspect this called 
paradigm. 
79. Different classifications of sentences. 
Types of sentence based on function Sentences can be classified in two ways: based on their 
function and based on their structure. When you describe a sentence based on its function, you’re 
describing it based on what it does.

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Declarative A declarative sentence is a sentence that: Makes a statement , Provides an explanation,
Conveys one or more facts. Declarative sentences are among the most common sentences in the 
English language. You use them every day. They end with periods. Here are a few examples of 
declarative sentences:
I forgot to wear a hat today. Your pizza is doughy because you didn’t cook it long enough. Spiders 
and crabs are both members of the arthropod family. 
Interrogative An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question, like: How many pet 
iguanas do you have? May I sit here? Aren’t there enough umbrellas to go around? 
One hallmark of interrogative sentences is that they usually begin with pronouns or auxiliary verbs. 
When this kind of sentence does start with the subject, it’s usually in colloquial speech. For 
example: He went there again? Rats can’t swim, right? 
Exclamatory Much like an interrogative question ends with a question mark, an exclamatory 
sentence ends with an exclamation mark. These sentences communicate heightened emotion and 
are often used as greetings, warnings, or rallying cries. Examples include: Hey! High voltage! Do 
not touch! This is Sparta! 
The only difference between a declarative sentence and an exclamatory one is the punctuation at 
the end. But that punctuation makes a big difference in how the reader or listened interprets the 
sentence. Consider the difference between these: It’s snowing. It’s snowing! 
Imperative An imperative sentence is a sentence that gives the reader advice, instructions, a 
command or makes a request. An imperative sentence can end in either a period or an exclamation 
point, depending on the urgency of the sentiment being expressed. Imperative sentences include: 
Get off my lawn! After the timer dings, take the cookies out of the oven. Always pack an extra 
pair of socks. 
With an imperative sentence, the subject is generally omitted because the reader understands 
they’re the one being addressed.
Conditional Conditional sentences are sentences that discuss factors and their consequences in 
an if-then structure. Their structure is: Conditional clause (typically known as the if-clause) + 
consequence of that clause. A basic example of a conditional sentence is: When you eat ice cream 
too fast, you get brain freeze. 
Getting more specific, that sentence is an example of a zero conditional sentence. There are 
actually four types of conditional sentences, which we cover in detail (and explain which tense to 
use with each) in our post on conditional sentences.
Types of sentence based on structure 
The other way to categorize sentences is to classify them based on their structure. Each of the types 
of sentences discussed above also fits into the categories discussed below.
Simple A simple sentence is the most basic type of sentence. This kind of sentence consists of 
just one independent clause, which means it communicates a complete thought and contains a 
subject and a verb. A few examples of simple sentences include: How are you? She built a garden.
We found some sea glass. 

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A simple sentence is the smallest possible grammatically correct sentence. Anything less is known 
as a sentence fragment.
Complex In contrast to a simple sentence, a complex sentence contains one independent clause 
and at least one dependent clause. While an independent clause can be its own sentence, a 
dependent clause can’t. Dependent clauses rely on the independent clauses in their sentences to 
provide context. Dependent clauses appear after a conjunction or marker word or before a comma. 
Marker words are words like whenever, although, since, while, and before. These words illustrate 
relationships between clauses. The following are complex sentences: Before you enter my house, 
take off your shoes. Matt plays six different instruments, yet never performs in public.
Compound Compound sentences are sentences that contain two or more independent clauses. In 
a compound sentence, the clauses are generally separated by either a comma paired with a 
coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. In some cases, they can be separated by a colon. 
Examples of compound sentences include: I was thirsty, so I drank water. She searched through 
her entire closet; she could not find her denim jacket. 
How can you tell if you have a compound sentence? Swap out your semicolon, colon, or 
coordinating conjunction for a period. If you now have two distinct, complete sentences, you’ve 
got a compound sentence.
Compound-Complex When a sentence has two or more independent clauses and at least one 
dependent clause, that sentence is a compound-complex sentence. These are long sentences that 
communicate a significant amount of information. The clauses don’t need to be in any specific 
order; as long as you’ve got at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause, 
you’ve got a compound-complex sentence. Here are a few examples of compound-complex 
sentences: I needed a new computer, so I got a laptop because they’re portable. The students were 
excited; they could go home early because of the power outage.
80. Survey of function words 
Function words are words that exist to explain or create grammatical or structural relationships 
into which the content words may fit. Words like "of," "the," "to," they have little meaning on 
their own. They are much fewer in number and generally do not change as English adds and omits 
content words. Therefore, we refer to function words as a "closed" class. Pronouns, prepositions, 
conjunctions, determiners, qualifiers/intensifiers, and interrogatives are some function parts of 
speech. 
In English grammar, a function word is a word that expresses a grammatical or structural 
relationship with other words in a sentence. In contrast to a content word, a function word has little 
or no meaningful content. Nonetheless, as Ammon Shea points out, "the fact that a word does not 
have a readily identifiable meaning does not mean that it serves no purpose." 
Function words are also known as: 
structure words , grammatical words, grammatical functors, grammatical morphemes, function 
morphemes, form words, empty words 
According to James Pennebaker, "function words account for less than one-tenth of 1 percent of 
your vocabulary but make up almost 60 percent of the words you use." 
Content Words vs. Function Words Function words include determiners, conjunctions, 
prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, modals, qualifiers, and question words. Content words are 
words with specific meanings, such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and main verbs (those without 

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helping verbs.) In the sentence, "The sly brown fox jumped gracefully over the lazy dog and cat," 
the content words are: fox, dog, and cat (nouns), 
sly, brown, and lazy (adjectives), 
gracefully (adverb) 
jumped (main verb) 
Function words include: the (determiner), over (preposition) and (conjunction) 
Even though the function words don't have concrete meanings, sentences would make a lot less 
sense without them. 
Determiners Determiners are words such as articles (the, a), possessive pronouns (their, your), 
quantifiers (much), demonstratives (that, those), and numbers. They function as adjectives to 
modify nouns and go in front of a noun to show the reader whether the noun is specific or general, 
such as in "that coat" (specific) vs. "a coat" (general).
Articles: a, an, the 
Demonstratives: that, this, those, these 
Possessive pronouns: my, your, their, our, ours, whose, his, hers, its, which
Quantifiers: some, both, most, many, a few, a lot of, any, much, a little, enough, several, none, all 
Conjunctions Conjunctions connect parts of a sentence, such as items in a list, two separate 
sentences, or clauses and phrases to a sentence. In the previous sentence, the conjunctions are or 
and and. Conjunctions: and, but, for, yet, neither, or, so, when, although, however, as, because, 
before
Prepositions Prepositions begin prepositional phrases, which contain nouns and other modifiers. 
Prepositions function to give more information about nouns. In the phrase "the river that flows 
through the woods." The prepositional phrase is "through the woods," and the preposition is 
"through." 
81. The notion of text: its structural interpretations. 
Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems. Its 
original aims lay in uncovering and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics 
has, however, evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in much broader terms 
that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an entire text. Text linguistics 
takes into account the form of a text, but also its setting, i. e. the way in which it is situated in an 
interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well as its 
addressee are taken into consideration in their respective (social and/or institutional) roles in the 
specific communicative context. In general it is an application of discourse analysis[1] at the much 
broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word. 
As a science of text, text linguistics describes or explains among different types of text the: 
Shared features 
Distinct features 
Text linguistics is the study of how texts function in human interaction. Beaugrande and Dressler 
define a text as a “communicative occurrence which meets seven standards of textuality” – 

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cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality, 
without any of which the text will not be communicative. Non-communicative texts are treated as 
non-texts. 
Cohesion Surface texts are the exact words that people see or hear. Cohesion concerns the ways 
in which the components of the surface text are connected within a sequence. Grammatical forms 
and conventions are adhered to by surface components and therefore cohesion rests upon 
grammatical dependencies. The grammatical dependencies in surface texts are major signals for 
sorting out meanings and uses. Cohesion encompasses all of the functions that can be used to 
signal relations among surface elements. 
Such a text can be divided up into various dependencies. Someone might construe it as a notice 
about "slow cars" that are "held up", so that conclusions could be drawn about the need to drive 
fast to avoid being held up. However, it is more likely for one to divide the text into "slow" and 
"cars held up', so that drivers will drive slowly to avoid accidents or take alternative routes to avoid 
being caught in the slow traffic. A science of text should explain how ambiguities such as these 
are possible, as well as how they are precluded or resolved without much difficulty. For efficient 
communication to take place there must be interaction between cohesion and other standards of 
textuality because the surface alone is not decisive. 
Coherence Coherence concerns the ways in which concepts and relations, which underlie the 
surface text, are linked, relevant and used, to achieve efficient communication. 
A concept is a cognitive content which can be retrieved or triggered with a high degree of 
consistency in the mind 
Relations are the links between concepts within a text, with each link identified with the concept 
that it connects to 
Surface texts may not always express relations explicitly therefore people supply as many relations 
as are needed to make sense out of any particular text. In the example of the road sign "SLOW 
CARS HELD UP', "cars" is an object concept and "held up" an action concept, and the "cars" are 
the link to "held up'. Therefore, "slow" is more likely to be interpreted as a motion than as the 
speed at which cars are travelling. 
82. Semasiology: phonetic and semantic aspects of words. 
Semasiology (from Greek: σημασία, semasia, "signification") is a discipline of linguistics 
concerned with the question "what does the word X mean?". It studies the meaning of words 
regardless how they are pronounced.[1] It is the opposite of onomasiology, a branch of lexicology 
that starts with a concept or object and asks for its name, i.e., "how do you express X?" whereas 
semasiology starts with a word and asks for its meanings. The exact meaning of semasiology is 
somewhat obscure. It is often used as a synonym of semantics (the study of the meaning of words, 
phrases, and longer forms of expression).[2] However, semasiology is also sometimes considered 
part of lexical semantics, a narrow subfield of lexicology (the study of words) and semantics. The 
term was first used in German by Christian Karl Reisig in 1825 in his work, [Lectures on Latin 
Linguistics] (German: Vorlesungen über lateinische Sprachwissenschaft), and was used in English 
by 1847. Semantics replaced it in its original meaning, beginning in 1893. 
Phonetic aspect of words. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce 
and perceive sounds, or in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign.[1] 

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Phoneticians—linguists who specialize in phonetics—study the physical properties of speech. The 
field of phonetics is traditionally divided into three sub-disciplines based on the research questions 
involved such as how humans plan and execute movements to produce speech (articulatory 
phonetics), how various movements affect the properties of the resulting sound (acoustic 
phonetics), or how humans convert sound waves to linguistic information (auditory phonetics). 
Traditionally, the minimal linguistic unit of phonetics is the phone—a speech sound in a 
language—which differs from the phonological unit of phoneme; the phoneme is an abstract 
categorization of phones. 
Semantic aspect of words. A semantic feature is a component of the concept associated with a 
lexical item ('female' + 'performer' = 'actress'). More generally, it can also be a component of the 
concept associated with any grammatical unit, whether composed or not ('female' + 'performer' = 
'the female performer' or 'the actress'). An individual semantic feature constitutes one component 
of a word's intention, which is the inherent sense or concept evoked. Linguistic meaning of a word 
is proposed to arise from contrasts and significant differences with other words. Semantic features 
enable linguistics to explain how words that share certain features may be members of the same 
semantic domain. Correspondingly, the contrast in meanings of words is explained by diverging 
semantic features. For example, father and son share the common components of "human", 
"kinship", "male" and are thus part of a semantic domain of male family relations. They differ in 
terms of "generation" and "adulthood", which is what gives each its individual meaning. 
83. Types of context, types of meaning and lexical-semantic variants of the word, semantic field. 
Monosemia, polysemia, hyperonymy-hyponymy problems.
the categories of context: 
Authorial context. Another term for this is biographical context.
Socio-historical context.
Philosophical context.
Literary context.
Critical context. 
Types of meaning Word-meaning is made up of various components, and their combination and 
the interrelation determine the inner facet of the word. These components represent types of 
meaning. The main types of meanings are grammatical, differential, distributional, and lexical 
meanings of words and word-forms. 
Grammatical meaning may be defined as “the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of 
individual forms of different words”
Lexical meaning has been defined by scholars in accordance with the main principles of different 
linguistic schools. Ferdinand de Saussure believes meaning is the relation between the object, or 
notion named, and the name itself. 
Denotative meaning The English lexicon is so vast and varied that clear categories of meaning 
are, at times, elusive. Words may have denotative and connotative meanings. Denotation is the 
“objective (dictionary) relationship between a lexeme and the reality to which it refers to”. The 
denotation of the lexeme spring corresponds to the season between winter and summer, regardless 
whether it is sunny, pleasant, or rainy. The denotation of the word cat corresponds to the set of 
felines. Further, we need to clarify the distinction between denotation and reference. Lyons defines 

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the denotation of a lexeme as “the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, 
places, properties, processes and activities external to the language system” 
Hyperonymy-Hyponymy Hyponymy shows the relationship between a generic term (hypernym) 
and a specific instance of it (hyponym). A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is 
more specific than its hypernym. The semantic field of a hypernym, also known as a superordinate, 
is broader than that of a hyponym. An approach to the relationship between hyponyms and 
hypernyms is to view a hypernym as consisting of hyponyms. This, however, becomes more 
difficult with abstract words such as imagine, understand and knowledge. While hyponyms are 
typically used to refer to nouns, it can also be used on other parts of speech. Like nouns, hypernyms 
in verbs are words that refer to a broad category of actions. For example, verbs such as stare, gaze, 
view and peer can also be considered hyponyms of the verb look, which is their hypernym. 
Hypernyms and hyponyms are asymmetric. Hyponymy can be tested by substituting X and Y in 
the sentence "X is a kind of Y" and determining if it makes sense.[7] For example, "A screwdriver 
is a kind of tool" makes sense, but not "A tool is a kind of screwdriver". Strictly speaking, the 
meaning relation between hyponyms and hypernyms applies to lexical items of the same word 
class (or parts of speech), and holds between senses rather than words. For instance, the word 
screwdriver used in the previous example refers to the screwdriver tool, and not to the screwdriver 
drink. Hyponymy is a transitive relation: if X is a hyponym of Y, and Y is a hyponym of Z, then 
X is a hyponym of Z.[8] For example, violet is a hyponym of purple and purple is a hyponym of 
color; therefore violet is a hyponym of color. A word can be both a hypernym and a hyponym: for 
example purple is a hyponym of color but itself is a hypernym of the broad spectrum of shades of 
purple between the range of crimson and violet. The hierarchical structure of semantic fields can 
be mostly seen in hyponymy. They could be observed from top to bottom, where the higher level 
is more general and the lower level is more specific. For example, living things will be the highest 
level followed by plants and animals, and the lowest level may comprise dog, cat and wolf. Under 
the relations of hyponymy and incompatibility, taxonomic hierarchical structures too can be 
formed. It consists of two relations; the first one being exemplified in "An X is a Y" (simple 
hyponymy) while the second relation is "An X is a kind/type of Y". The second relation is said to 
be more discriminating and can be classified more specifically under the concept of taxonomy.] 
POLYSEMY consists in a variety of semantic relations through which meanings of words extend 
or shift so that a single word has two or more related meanings, as with nickel (the coin) and nickel 
(the metal). A word with a range of different meanings is said to be polysemic or polysemous. 
POLYSEMY is contrasted with MONOSEMY, where one word exhibits one meaning. Some 
monosemous words have a vague meaning which automatically becomes more specific when it 
gets applied in use. For instance, a word like aunt is a monosemous item, even though it may be 
applied to two distinct referents: ‘father’s sister’ versus ‘mother’s sister’. Technically, we are 
dealing with one word and one sense here, even though the one sense may be applied to two distinct 
extensions.
84. Synonyms and their classification. 
Synonyms are words belonging to one part of speech, close in meaning and interchangeable at 
least in some contexts. They are characterized by the semantic relations of proximity or 
equivalence.The highest degree of semantic proximity is observed when the denotational meanings 
are similar, but the connotational (famous - notorious) or the pragmatic (fatherly - paternal) 
meanings differ. 
Russian classification: 

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Stylistic - no interchangeability in context, because the underlying situations are different (teens - 
adolescents). 
Ideographic - differences in denotational meaning (forest - wood). 
Ideographic-stylistic - the lowest degree of semantic proximity, differ both in D. and C. and/or P. 
meanings (ask - inquire). 
Dialectal (lift - elevator). 
Contextual - similar in meaning only under certain conditions. 
Absolute - completely the same in meaning (stops - plosives). 
Western classification: absolute (total), cognitive (liberty - freedom), near-synonyms (stream 
brook), cross-linguistic near-synonyms 
85 .Antonyms – a class of words grouped together on the basis of the semantic relations of 
opposition. Antonyms are words belonging to one part of speech sharing certain common semantic 
characteristics and in this respect they are similar to such semantic classes as synonyms, lexical 
sets, lexico-semantic groups. 
A polysemantic word may have an antonym for each of its meanings 
e.g. dull – interesting, amusing, entertaining 
dull – clever, bright, capable 
dull - active 
Classifications: 
Morphological: 
of the same root (derivational) (useful – useless) 
of different roots (small – big) 
Semantic: 
contradictories (complementary) — mutually opposed, deny one another // dead - alive, single – 
married, do – undo, male - female 
contraries (proper) - can be arranged into a series according to the increasing difference in one of 
their qualities (gradable antonyms) // cold – cool – warm – hot 
incompatibles - relations of exclusion // winter - not spring, not summer, not autumn 
conversives – the same thing but viewed from different POVs // buy – sell, left – right 
reversives – the opposite things // fall – rise, up – down 
enantiosemy – meaning different within one word 
near opposites - not the marginal members of the gradation scale // bad – excellent 
Antonyms – a class of words grouped together on the basis of the semantic relations of opposition. 
Antonyms are words belonging to one part of speech sharing certain common semantic 
characteristics and in this respect they are similar to such semantic classes as synonyms, lexical 
sets, lexico-semantic groups. (lexical sets (предметные или тематические группы) - words 
denoting different things correlated on extralinguistic grounds: lion, tiger, leopard, puma, cat refer 
to the lexical set of “the animals of the cat family’; words describing different sides of one and the 
same general notion are united in a lexico-semantic group: group denoting “physical movement” 
– to go, to turn, to run). There exist different classifications of antonyms. 

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Structurally, antonyms can be divided into antonyms of the same root (1), e.g. to do – to undo, 
cheerful – cheerless, and antonyms of different roots (2), e.g. day – night, rich – poor.Semantically, 
antonyms may be classified into contradictories, contraries and incompatibles. 
1. Contradictories represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs like, for 
example, dead – alive, single – married. Contradictory antonyms are mutually opposed, they deny 
one another. Contradictories form a privative binary opposition, they are members of two-term 
sets. To use one of the words is to contradict the other and to use “not” before one of them is to 
make it semantically equivalent to the other: not dead = alive; not single = married. 
2. Contrariesare antonyms that can be arranged into a series according to the increasing difference 
in one of their qualities. The most distant elements of this series will be classified as contrary 
notions. Contraries are gradable antonyms, they are polar members of a gradual opposition which 
may have intermediate members. This may be observed in cold – hot and cool – warm which are 
intermediate members. Thus, we may regard as antonyms not only cold and hot but also cold and 
warm. Contrary antonyms may also be considered in terms of degrees of the quality involved. 
Thus, water may be cold or very cold, and water in one glass may be colder than in another glass. 
3. Incompatibles are antonyms which are characterized by the relations of exclusion. Semantic 
relations of incompatibility exist among antonyms with a common component of meaning and 
may be described as the reverse of hyponymy. For example, to say morning is to say not afternoon, 
not evening, not night. The use of one member of this set implies the exclusion of the other 
members of the set. Incompatibles differ from contradictories as incompatibles are members of the 
multiple-term sets while contradictories are members of two-term sets. A relation of 
incompatibility may be also observed between colour terms since the choice of red, for example, 
entails the exclusion of black, blue, yellow, etc. 
86. Homonymy classification of homonyms 
Words identical in sound-form but different in meaning are traditionally termed homonymous. 
When analyzing different cases of homonymy we find that some words are homonymous in all 
their forms, i.e. we observe full homonymy of the paradigms of two or more different words as, 
e.g., in seal (1)—'a sea animal' and seal (2)—'a design printed on paper by means of a stamp'. The 
paradigm "seal, seal's, seals, seals' " is identical for both of them and gives no indication of whether 
it is seal (1) or seal (2) that we are analysing. In other cases, e.g. seal (1)—'a sea animal' and (to) 
seal (3)—'to close tightly', we see that although some individual word-forms are homonymous, the 
whole of the paradigm is not identical. Compare, for instance, the paradigms: It is easily observed 
that only some of the word-forms (e.g. seal, seals, etc.) are homonymous, whereas others (e.g. 
sealed, sealing) are not. In such cases we cannot speak of homonymous words but only of 
homonymy of individual word-forms or of partial homonymy. This is true of a number of other 
cases, e.g. compare find [faind], found [faund], found [faund] and found [faund], founded 
['faundid], founded [faundid]; know [nou], knows [nouz], knew [nju:], and no [nou]; nose [nouz], 
noses [nouziz]; new [nju:] in which partial homonymy is observed. 
Consequently all cases of homonymy may be classified into full and partial homonymy—i.e. 
homonymy of words and homonymy of individual word-forms. From the examples of homonymy 
discussed above it follows that the bulk of full homonyms are to be found within the same parts of 
speech and partial homonymy as a rule is observed in word-forms belonging to different parts of 
speech. This is not to say that partial homonymy is impossible within one part of speech. Cases of 
full homonymy may be found in different parts of speech as, e.g., for—preposition, for—
conjunction and four —numeral, as these parts of speech have no other word-forms.Homonyms 
may be also classified by the type of meaning into lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical 

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homonyms. In seal (1) n and seal (2) n, e.g., the part-of-speech meaning of the word and the 
grammatical meanings of all its forms are identical The difference is confined to lexical meaning 
only or, to be more exact, to the denotational component: seal (1) denotes 'a sea animal', 'the fur 
of this animal', etc., seal (2)—'a design printed on paper, the stamp by which the design is made', 
etc. So we can say that seal (1) and seal (2) are lexical homonyms as they differ in lexical meaning. 
If we compare seal (1)—'a sea animal' and (to) seal (3)—'to close tightly', we shall observe not 
only a difference in the lexical meaning of their homonymous word-forms, but a difference in their 
grammatical meanings as well. Identical sound-forms, i.e. seals [si:lz] (Common Case Plural of 
the noun) and (he) seals [si:lz] (third person Singular of the verb) possess each of them different 
grammatical meanings. As both grammatical and lexical meanings differ we describe these 
homonymous word-forms as lexico-grammatical. 
Lexico-grammatical homonymy generally implies that the homonyms in question belong to 
different parts of speech. But there may be cases however when lexico-grammatical homonymy is 
observed within the same part of speech as, e.g., in the verbs (to) find [faind] and (to) found 
[faund], where homonymic word-forms: found [faund]—Past Tense of (to) find and found 
[faund]—Present Tense of (to) found differ both grammatically and lexically. 
Modern English abounds in homonymic word-forms differing in grammatical meaning only. In 
the paradigms of the majority of verbs the form of the Past Tense is homonymous with the form 
of Participle II, e.g. asked—asked; in the paradigm of nouns we usually find homonymous forms 
of the Possessive Case Singular and the Common Case Plural, e.g. brother's—brothers. It may be 
easily observed that grammatical homonymy is the homonymy of different word-forms of one and 
the same word.The two classifications: full and partial homonymy and lexical, lexico-grammatical 
and grammatical homonymy are not mutually exclusive. All homonyms may be described on the 
basis of the two criteria—homonymy of all forms of the word or only some of the word-forms and 
the type of meaning in which homonymous words or word-forms differ. So we speak of full lexical 
homonymy of seal (1) n and seal (2) n, of partial lexical homonymy of lie (1) v and lie (2) v, and 
of partial lexico-grammatical homonymy of seal (1) n and seal (3) v. 
In the discussion of the problem of homonymy we proceeded from the as sumption that words are 
two-facet units possessing both sound-form and meaning, and we deliberately disregarded their 
graphic form. Some linguists, however, argue that the graphic form of words in Modern English 
is just as important as their sound-form and' should be taken into consideration in the analysis and 
classification of homonyms. Consequently they proceed from the definition of homonyms as 
words identical in sound-form or spelling but different in meaning. It follows that in their 
classification of homonyms all the three aspects: sound-form, graphic-form and meaning are taken 
into account. Accordingly they classify homonyms into homographs, homophones and perfect 
homonyms. 
Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different both in their sound-form and meaning, 
e.g. bow n [bou]— 'a piece of wood curved by a string and used for shooting arrows' and bow n 
[bau]—'the bending of the head or body'; tear n [tia]—'a drop of water that comes from the eye' 
and tear v [tea]—'to pull apart by force'. Homophones are words identical in sound-form but 
different both in spelling and in meaning, e.g. sea n and see v; son n and sun n. 
Perfect homonyms are words identical both in spelling and in sound-form but different in meaning, 
e.g. case (1) n— 'something that has happened' and case (2) n—'a box, a container'. It may be 
readily observed that in this approach no distinction is made between homonymous words and 
homonymous word-forms or between full and partial homonymy. 

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8The two classifications: full and partial homonymy and lexical, lexico-grammatical and 
grammatical homonymy are not mutually exclusive. All homonyms may be described on the basis 
of the two criteria—homonymy of all forms of the word or only some of the word-forms and the 
type of meaning in which homonymous words or word-forms differ. So we speak of full lexical 
homonymy of seal (1) n and seal (2) n, of partial lexical homonymy of lie (1) v and lie (2) v, and 
of partial lexico-grammatical homonymy of seal (1) n and seal (3) v. 
In the discussion of the problem of homonymy we proceeded from the as sumption that words are 
two-facet units possessing both sound-form and meaning, and we deliberately disregarded their 
graphic form. Some linguists, however, argue that the graphic form of words in Modern English 
is just as important as their sound-form and' should be taken into consideration in the analysis and 
classification of homonyms. Consequently they proceed from the definition of homonyms as 
words identical in sound-form or spelling but different in meaning. It follows that in their 
classification of homonyms all the three aspects: sound-form, graphic-form and meaning are taken 
into account. Accordingly they classify homonyms into homographs, homophones and perfect 
homonyms. 
Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different both in their sound-form and meaning, 
e.g. bow n [bou]— 'a piece of wood curved by a string and used for shooting arrows' and bow n 
[bau]—'the bending of the head or body'; tear n [tia]—'a drop of water that comes from the eye' 
and tear v [tea]—'to pull apart by force'. Homophones are words identical in sound-form but 
different both in spelling and in meaning, e.g. sea n and see v; son n and sun n. 
Perfect homonyms are words identical both in spelling and in sound-form but different in meaning, 
e.g. case (1) n— 'something that has happened' and case (2) n—'a box, a container'. It may be 
readily observed that in this approach no distinction is made between homonymous words and 
homonymous word-forms or between full and partial homonymy 
87.Morphemic construction of the word: types and classes of morphemes. Word structure, 
diachronic and synchronous views.
Next A "morpheme" is a short segment of language that meets three basic criteria: 
1. It is a word or a part of a word that has meaning. 
2. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful segments without changing its meaning or leaving 
a meaningless remainder. 
3. It has relatively the same stable meaning in different verbal environments. 
Free and Bound Morphemes 
There are two types of morphemes-free morphemes and bound morphemes. "Free morphemes" 
can stand alone with a specific meaning, for example, eat, date, weak. "Bound morphemes" cannot 
stand alone with meaning. Morphemes are comprised of two separate classes called (a) bases (or 
roots) and (b) affixes. 
A "base," or "root" is a morpheme in a word that gives the word its principle meaning. An example 
of a "free base" morpheme is woman in the word womanly. An example of a "bound base" 
morpheme is -sent in the word dissent. 
Affixes 
An "affix" is a bound morpheme that occurs before or after a base. An affix that comes before a 
base is called a "prefix." Some examples of prefixes are ante-, pre-, un-, and dis-, as in the 
following words: 
antedate 
prehistoric 
unhealthy 
disregard 

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An affix that comes after a base is called a "suffix." Some examples of suffixes are -ly, -er, -ism, 
and -ness, as in the following words: 
happily 
gardener 
capitalism 
kindness 
Derivational Affixes 
An affix can be either derivational or inflectional. "Derivational affixes" serve to alter the meaning 
of a word by building on a base. In the examples of words with prefixes and suffixes above, the 
addition o 
- verb past perfect participle 
-er adjective comparative 
-est adjective superlativef the prefix un- to healthy alters the meaning of healthy. The resulting 
word means "not healthy." The addition of the suffix -er to garden changes the meaning of garden, 
which is a place where plants, flowers, etc., grow, to a word that refers to 'a person who tends a 
garden.' It should be noted that all prefixes in English are derivational. However, suffixes may be 
either derivational or inflectional. 
Inflectional Affixes 
There are a large number of derivational affixes in English. In contrast, there are only eight 
"inflectional affixes" in English, and these are all suffixes. English has the following inflectional 
suffixes, which serve a variety of grammatical functions when added to specific types of words. 
These grammatical functions are shown to the right of each suffix. 
-s noun plural 
-'s noun possessive 
-s verb present tense third person singular 
Classes of Morphemes: Prefix, Suffix, Infix, and Circumfix 
So far in our section on morphology, we have introduced the linguistic concept of the morpheme 
and we have discussed the categorical juxtaposition of bound and free morphemes; however, we 
only loosely touched upon the probably most common method of forming words: affixation. In 
order to discuss the methods of affixation, we have to take a look at what affixes are in the first 
place.ing verb present participle/gerund 
-ed verb simple past tense 
-en
un-, -less, re-, de- 
mis- -ish -ing -al 
pre- -ism -er -s 
-ful -ly -ed
As you can see from the list provided, affixes are, by definition, bound morphemes. Accordingly, 
an affix is a morpheme that only occurs when attached to free morphemes which are then called 
the base, stem or root. An affix cannot stand alone. 
Scanning the list of randomly chosen affixes available in the English language, you might realize 
that affixes can be attached before the base or after the base. Taking for instance, the root "happy" 
as our base, we can easily form a new lexical item by adding “un-” to form “unhappy” or “-ly” to 
transform the adjective into the adverb “happily”. 
A prefix describes any affix that is attached in front of the root, e.g. "un-", "de-". An affix that is 
appended after the root is a suffix, e.g. "-ness", "-ly", "-able". 

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There is a third type of affix that can rarely be found in the English language but is fairly common 
in Semitic languages such as Arabic and Hebrew. This third type of affix is called infix: and 
describes an affix which is incorporated inside another wDifference Between Morpheme and 
Allomorph 
Definition
Morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning in a language. 
Allomorph is a unit of meaning that varies in sound without changing its meaning. 
Nature 
Morphemes can be a word or part of a word. 
Allomorphs are often a part of a word. 
Area
Morphemes are concerned with the structure and meaning of words. 
Allomorphs are concerned with the sound of words.nd χρόνος "time") considers a language at a 
moment in time without taking its history into account. Synchronic linguistics aims at describing 
a language at a specific point of time, usually the present. In contrast, a diachronic (from δια- 
"through" and χρόνος "time") approach, as in historical linguistics, considers the development and 
evolution of a language through history.[1] 
88. Morphology is the study of words and their structure. 
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful morphological unit in a language. Allomorph is a variant 
form of a morpheme. The main difference between morpheme and allomorph is that morpheme is 
concerned with the meaning and structure of a word whereas allomorph is concerned with the 
sound.What is a Morpheme 
A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning in a language. It can be defined as the smallest, 
meaningful, morphological unit in a language that cannot be further divided or analyzed. In 
linguistics, morphemes are classified into two categories. They are free morpheme and bound 
morpheme. A free morpheme is a word, that is, a free morpheme is a meaningful unit. Some 
examples of free morphemes include 
hat, believe, cheap, talk, red, new, cow, deliver, legal, etc. 
Note that all free morphemes are words, but not all words are morphemes. 
Bound morphemes are the units that cannot stand alone. On their own, they have no meaning. It 
always has to be added to other morphemes to give a meaning. The underlined parts in the 
following words are bound morphemes. 
Hats 
Disbelieve 
Cheaply 
Talked 
Reddish 
Bound Morphemes can be further divided into two categories called derivational and inflectional 
morphemes. Derivational morpheme is a morpheme that is added to the (the base form) of the 
word to derive a new word.
Example 1: 
Danger 
⇒ Dangerous 
Beauty
⇒ Beautiful 
Example 2: 
Visible 
⇒ invisible 

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Believe 
⇒ Disbelieve 
Derivational morphemes often change the word class of a word. (as in example 1) 
Even if the word class remains unchanged, the meaning of the word will undergo a significant 
difference. (as in example 2) 
In contrast, inflectional morphemes do not cause a change in the meaning or word class, they 
merely serve as grammatical markers. They indicate some grammatical information about a word. 
Danced –Past Tense 
Vans – Plural 
Raining – Progressive 
Allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme. It can be simply described as a unit of meaning that 
varies in sound without changing its meaning. Allomorph is an alternative pronunciation of a 
morpheme in a particular context. 
For instance, the plural morpheme in English, generally written as {s} has 3 allomorphs. 
/s/ as in cats 
/z/ as in dogs 
/ɪz/ as in boxes 
The past form morphemes also have three allomorphs. 
/d/ as in slammed 
/t/as in slipped 
/ɪd/ as in stilted 
Difference Between Morpheme and Allomorph 
Definition
Morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning in a language. 
Allomorph is a unit of meaning that varies in sound without changing its meaning. 
Nature 
Morphemes can be a word or part of a word. 
Allomorphs are often a part of a word. 
Area
Morphemes are concerned with the structure and meaning of words. 
Allomorphs are concerned with the sound of words. 
89 . An important part of increasing your vocabulary is understanding word building to make new 
words. Not inventing new ones, but using the way the language works to build on existing ones. 
In this respect, there are more similarities between Spanish and English than you may think. 
Just like people, words live in little families. These families share a common part, but have slightly 
different forms. For example, the word excite (a verb) has the following family members: Excited; 
exciting; excitement; exciter; excitingly. 
Nouns 
The most common noun endings are -tion; -ment; -ness; -ity; -ence/-ance; -ism; -hood. The first 
five describe a concept, for example; employment, tolerance or happiness. If the root word is a 
verb, it’s normal to take the suffix -ment, -ity or -tion, as in government, ability or conversation. 
Adjective roots usually use -ness and -ance. For example, brilliance or weakness. 
-ism is most often used for political or philosophical ideas. For example, communism or racism. -
hood is often about people, so we see things like childhood or neighbourhood. 

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For people, we see lots of -er and -or. For example, football player or actor. 
Adjectives 
To change a noun into an adjective, we usually use -ic, -al and -ous. For example, economy to 
economic, politics to political and marvel to marvellous. These are all similar to the Spanish ways 
of forming adjectives. Just be careful to remember that many Spanish -ico adjectives become -al 
in English (politico – political), rather than -ic (politic), whereas -oso to -ous is much less 
complicated (fabuloso – fabulous). 
-ful and -less indicate whether something contains that thing. For example hopeful is positive, 
because it means there is a lot of hope. However, hopeless is negative. It says that there is no hope. 
-able shows ability, connected to the root verb. If something is adorable (like a baby panda), it 
means that you can easily adore it. 
Related – Get yourself connected 
Other common forms are -nant, -ive and -ent. For example, dominant, submissive and different. 
These almost always come from verbs. They match the nouns that follow -ance and -ion. 
-ed and -ing adjectives confuse some students, and teachers are often not helpful. It’s actually 
pretty easy. -ing is an active adjective and -ed a passive one. In the same way that emocionante 
and emocionado have different meanings, so do exciting and excited. (I am excited/this film is 
exciting).Notice that the -ed in English and -ado in Spanish look similar and in fact almost always 
follow each other in usage. 
90 
In linguistics, conversion, also called zero derivation or null derivation, is a kind of word formation 
involving the creation of a word (of a new word class) from an existing word (of a different word 
class) without any change in form,[1] which is to say, derivation using only zero. For example, the 
noun green in golf (referring to a putting-green) is derived ultimately from the adjective green. 
Conversions from adjectives to nouns and vice versa are both very common and unnotable in 
English; much more remarked upon is the creation of a verb by converting a noun or other word 
(e.g., the adjective clean becomes the verb to clean). 
91Ways to translate compound words into their native language. 
Compound words are words that are made up of two describing words: linking two words 
together to make a new word. 
Certainly, learning a new language might be easier for some people than others, but 
everyone must consider the different manner in which terms, phrases or words can fool 
you. 
Besides those people who are learning a new language being aware of commonly misused 
words, homophones, false friends, and so on, so too must translators always be on top of 
these tricky dilemmas. Another obstacle that can cause concern for translators is 
compound words! 

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What Are Compound Words? 
In case you’re not entirely sure what compound words are, they’re words that are made 
up of two describing words: linking two words together to make a new word. Both 
Spanish and English have several of these words. In addition, when there’s no equivalent 
in the other language, compound words are really handy because you can work out what’s 
being referred to by analysing both words. 
Here are some examples of compound words that you might find in both the English and 
Spanish languages – 
Dishwasher: A machine for washing dishes; in Spanish, lavaplatos. 
Lipstick: A stick used on your lips; in Spanish, lapiz de labio, meaning roughly the same 
thing. 
Birthday: The day of birth of something or someone; in Spanish, cumpleaños; meaning 
to reach a number of years. 
Skyscraper: A building that ‘scrapes’ the sky; in Spanish, rascacielos. 
Record player: A device for playing records; in Spanish, tocadisco. 
Windshield: Something that shields against wind; in Spanish, parabrisas, which literally 
means wind-stopper. 
Tongue-twisters: Phrases that ‘twist’ your tongue because they’re so difficult to articulate 
properly; in Spanish, trabalenguas; meaning something that ‘stops’ or ‘jams’ your tongue. 
You’ll generally find compound words quite helpful in translation because they often 
reveal what they’re referring to. But, a word of warning! Sometimes you can be fooled 
into thinking it means something entirely different; and that’s why we say that both 
translators and people learning a new language must be aware of these language traps. 
Let’s change tactics now and have a look at some English compound words that don’t 
make any sense at all – and their counterparts in Spanish, which are not compound words 
in these cases. 

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Chickpea: Obviously this does not refer to either a chick or a pea: in fact, it’s the edible 
seed used in the making of hummus. In Spanish it’s garbanzo. 
Butterfly: There are no flies made out of butter! We know this word refers to those 
beautifully colored flying insects. In Spanish it’s mariposa. 
Eggplant: It’s definitely not a plant that contains eggs! It’s a tropical plant cultivated for 
its egg-shaped dark-purple fruit. In Spanish it’s berenjena. 
Carpool: Is not a pool with a car in it, or vice versa. It’s an arrangement where a group of 
people take turns driving each other’s children to school or driving each other to work. 
There’s no word in Spanish that refers to carpool, so in this instance you would have to 
describe the particular situation. 
So, as you can see from the above examples, it’s important that translators be aware of 
terms such as these, and of course, there are many others to watch out for. 
Compounding is the process of combining two words to create a new word (commonly a 
noun, verb, or adjective in both languages). Also called composition, it is from the Latin 
for "put together". 
A.I. Smirnitsky considers compound words as a single unit of form and describes them 
as a linguistic unit that cannot be divided into parts, no element can be added between its 
components, and the position cannot be changed. Similar definitions are given in most 
works related to the topic. 
Compounds are written sometimes as one word (sunglasses- ko'zoynak), sometimes as 
two hyphenated words (life-threatening, hyphenation is not typical of compound words 
in Uzbek), and sometimes as two separate words (football stadium-futbol maydoni). 
Compounding is the most common type of word-formation in 
English. This type of word formation is also one of the most productive ways of the Uzbek 
language. 
According to basic spelling rules of the uzbek language following compounds are written 
as one word: 

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1.Compounds( especially adjective and noun compounds) which are formed with the help 
of such words: Xona, nota, poya, bop, xush, ham, baxsh, kam, umum, rang, mijoz, sifat, 
talab 
For example: qabulxona, tabriknoma, taklifnoma, bedapoya, ommabop, xushxabar, 
hamsuhbat, orombaxsh, kamquvvat, bug'doyrang, umumxalq, sovuqmijoz, devsifat, 
suvtalab 
2.Noun compounds and adjective compounds which end -ar (negative form mas) 
For example: o'rinbosar, otboqar, cho'lquvar, ishyoqmas, qushqo'nmas 
3.A compound noun and a compound adjective denoting an object by comparing it with 
something else. 
For example: karnaygul, qo'ziqorin, otquloq, oybolta, devqomat, sheryurak, 
bodomqovoq, qirg'iyko'z 
4.Compound nouns are used to describe something based on its color, taste, something in 
it, and so on. 
For example: olaqarg'a, qizilishton, achchiqtosh, mingoyoq 
5.Compound nouns are used to indicate that an item is intended for a purpose For 
example: kirsovun, qiymataxta, tokqaychi, oshrayhon, molqo'ra, nosqovoq, 
ko'zoynak 
6.Compound nouns are indicated the location of the object For example: tog'olcha, 
cho'lyalpiz, suvilon, qashqargul 
7.Compound nouns which are names of Rituals, legends, etc 
For example: kiryuvdi, kelintushdi, qoryog'di, Urto'qmoq, Ochildasturxon 
8.The second part are formed by common noun or the word "obod" 
For example: Yangiyo'l, To'rtko'l, Mirzacho'l, Sirdaryo, Kosonsoy, Yangiobod, 
Xalqobod 
9.Compound words borrowed from Russian or translated word by word 
For example: kinoteatr, radiostansiya, fotoapparat, elektrotexnika; teleko'rsatuv, 
yarimavtomat, bayramoldi, suvosti 
Oriental Renaissance: Innovative, educational, natural and social sciences Scientific 
Journal Impact Factor Advanced Sciences Index Fact 
Based on basic spelling rules of the uzbek language following compounds are written as 
two separated words: 
1.when the second part of the compound nouns are proper noun 

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for example: O'rta Osiyo, Ko'hna Urganch, O'rta Chirchiq 
2. Parts of a compound verb are written separately 
For example: sarf qil, ta'sir et, tamom bo'l, sotib ol, olib kel , olib chiq, miq etma. 
O.D. Meshkov describes compound words in English as follows: it is formed by the union 
of two or more bases, and it manifests itself in speech as an indivisible lexical unit". He 
divides compound words into the following two groups according to the sign of 
motivation: 
1) Structurally motivated compound words - derive from the sum of the meanings of the 
components of the common meaning. 
For example: footwear 
2) Structurally unmotivated compound words - do not arise from the sum of the meanings 
of the components of the common meaning. 
For example: ladybird 
But an uzbek linguist A. Hodzhiev denies the phenomenon of word formation by 
combining two words (composition). All Uzbek works, articles, theses on wordformation 
mention the "compositional method" of word-formation and describe it as a productive 
method of word-formation. However, the scientist notes that if the Uzbek language 
approaches the phenomenon directly from its own materials, it becomes clear that there 
is no compositional word formation in this language. 
In Uzbek, two independent words are connected in a certain grammatical form, and there 
is a grammatical connection between the compound words. This connection results in a 
syntactic unit a phrase or a sentence, not a lexeme. We should bear in mind the fact. " 
Of course, so-called "compound words" also occur in certain ways. But it is necessary to 
distinguish the phenomenon of the formation of a new word on the basis of a special 
method, when a word occurs in one way or another, due to an event. The scientist warns 
that the following should be taken into account: 
First of all, When creating a new word by word-formation method, a special word-
forming tool (unit) is used, which is called a word-builder. For example: containing the 
words of ishchi, tozala -chi and -la word-builders in the words. There is no such thing as 
a compound word. The words such as itburun, boyo'g'li, and 

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qirqog'ayni do not have a word unit. Consequently, they do not have word-formation, 
they cannot be said to be formed in the same way. 
Second, a word (derivative) formed by the word-formation method is formed from a 
specific word using a word-builder, and this word (this part of the derivative) is the basis 
of word formation. For example, the word rohatlanmoq is derived from the word rohat. 
In this word, rohat is the root or core of word formation, -lan is the word-formative 
adverb. Every derivational word consists of a core and a word-forming part. Compound 
words do not have this content. So, they do not have means of word formation and method 
of word formation. 
Third, in a special way, the meaning of words made using special units arises from the 
meaning of its parts, the meaning of which can be based on the meaning of parts: dutorchi 
- (musician who plays the dutor), og'irlashdi - the weight was heavy, chiroyli - had a good 
(pleasant) beauty, and so on. There is no such thing as a "compound word": the meaning 
of the word itog'iz (flower name) cannot be based on the meaning of its parts (it, og'iz). 
As regard to the English language compounding exists in several different forms and parts 
of speech, including the following: Compound Adjective Types of compound adjectives 
Not every compound adjective contains two singular adjectives. We realize that sounds a 
bit confusing, so this chart should explain it more clearly: