O’ganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (nazariy grammatika, leksikologiya, stilistika)

Examples: Letters of recommendation; cover letters; Op-Eds and Editorial newspaper articles; 
argumentative essays for academic papers 
Narrative: Often seen in longer writing samples, the purpose of this writing style is to share 
information in the context of a story. Narratives should include characters, conflicts, and settings. 
Examples: Short stories; novels; poetry; historical accounts
Expository: This type of writing is used to explain a concept and share information to a broader 
audience. Expository writing provides evidence, statistics, or results and focuses on the facts of a 
certain topic. This type is not meant to express opinions. 
Examples: How-to articles; textbooks; news stories (not editorials or Op-Eds); business, technical, 
or scientific writing 
Descriptive: This type of writing is used to depict imagery to create a clear picture in the mind of 
the reader. This method helps the readers become more connected to the writing by appealing to 
their senses. Descriptive writing employs literary techniques such as similes, metaphors, allegory, 
etc to engage the audience. 
Examples: Poetry; fictional novels or plays; memoirs or first-hand accounts of events 
23. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics. 
Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology or grammar. Phonetics studies 
the outer form of language; its sound matter. Phonetics occupies itself with the study of the ways 
in which the sounds are organized into a system of units and the variation of the units in all types 
and styles of spoken language. 
Theoretical Phonetics has the following branches: articulatory, acoustic,auditory,functional 
/phonologicalEach branch of Theoretical Phonetics investigates the appropriate aspect of speech 
sounds.Articulatory Phonetics investigates the functioning of one’s speech apparatus and 
mechanism. It is based on profound knowledge of physiology and the structure of one’s speech 

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apparatus. While investigating the articulatory aspect of speech sounds both subjective and 
objective methods are employed: the method of direct observation (concerning the lips & the 
tongue movements) – subjective method and X-ray photography and X-ray cinematography 
(objective methods). Acoustic Phonetics studies the acoustic properties of sounds (quantity, 
timber/voice quality, intensity, the pitch of the voice and temporal factor) in terms of the frequency 
of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in relation to time. The analysis begins with a 
microphone, which converts the air movement into corresponding electrical activity. While 
investigating the acoustic aspect of speech sounds special laboratory equipment is employed: 
spectrograph, intonograph, sound analyzing & sound synthesizing machines. 
Auditory Phonetics is aimed at investigating the hearing process which is the brain activity. 
+Functional Phonetics presupposes investigating the discriminatory (distinctive) function of 
speech sounds. 
Phonetics is a branch of 
linguistics
 that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds, or in 
the case of 
sign languages
, the equivalent aspects of sign.
[1]
 Phoneticians—linguists who specialize 
in phonetics—study the physical properties of speech. The field of phonetics is traditionally 
divided into three sub-disciplines based on the research questions involved such as how humans 
plan and execute movements to produce speech (
articulatory phonetics
), how various movements 
affect the properties of the resulting sound (
acoustic phonetics
), or how humans convert sound 
waves to linguistic information (
auditory phonetics
). Traditionally, the minimal linguistic unit of 
phonetics is the 
phone
—a speech sound in a language—which differs from the phonological unit 
of 
phoneme
; the phoneme is an abstract categorization of phones. 
Phonetics broadly deals with two aspects of human speech: production—the ways humans make 
sounds—and perception—the way speech is understood. The 
communicative modality
of a 
language describes the method by which a language produces and perceives languages. Languages 
with oral-aural modalities such as English produce speech orally (using the mouth) and perceive 
speech aurally (using the ears). Sign languages, such as Australian Sign Language (
Auslan
) and 
American Sign Language (
ASL
), have a manual-visual modality, producing speech manually 
(using the hands) and perceiving speech visually (using the eyes). ASL and some other sign 
languages have in addition a manual-manual dialect for use in 
tactile signing
 by 
deafblind
 speakers 
where signs are produced with the hands and perceived with the hands as well. 
24. Aspects and methods of phonetics. Transcription. 
Phonetic transcription may be used to transcribe the phones of a language. In all systems of 
transcription there is a distinction between broad transcription and narrow transcription. Broad 
transcription indicates only the most noticeable phonetic features of an utterance, whereas narrow 
transcription encodes more information about the phonetic characteristics of the 
allophones
 in the 
utterance. The difference between broad and narrow is a continuum, but the difference between 
phonemic and phonetic transcription is usually treated as a binary distinction.
[3]
Phonemic 
transcription is a particular form of broad transcription which disregards all allophonic difference; 
as the name implies, it is not really a phonetic transcription at all (though at times it may coincide 
with one), but a representation of phonemic structure. A transcription which includes some 
allophonic detail but is closely linked to the phonemic structure of an utterance is called 
an allophonic transcription.
Phonetic transcription (also known as phonetic script or phonetic 
notation) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or phones) by means of symbols. The most 

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common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, such as the International Phonetic 
Alphabet.
The value of phonetic transcription is unquestionable for phoneticians, linguists and speech 
researchers in general. The purpose is to describe the use of phonetic transcription in an English 
Studies degree at the University of Murcia, Spain. Despite being a very specific context, its 
description may be relevant for a broader range of contexts since similar courses are taught in 
many modern language and linguistics programs across the world that focus on students’ L1 or 
language of study. Moreover, the discussion touches upon issues rarely discussed in the literature, 
which may apply to all contexts where transcription is taught and learned. An overview is provided 
of the goals of transcription work in that four-year degree as well as the students’ profile, content 
taught, materials and methodology used and assessment
25. Phonology and its relation to other branches of linguistics. 
Phonology, a major branch of linguistics, deals with sounds of a language. It is the study 
of the patterns of sounds in a language. It deals with how speech sounds are organised and 
used in a language; especially how the sounds are organised in the mind and how they are 
used to convey meaning. The phonological system of a language has to do with two basic 
foci: the inventory of sounds and their features and the rules which govern how sounds 
interact with one another. Phonology is related to other branches of linguistics like 
phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Phonology is different from 
phonetics. Phonetics analyses the production or articulation of speech sounds irrespective 
of the language, but phonology analyses the sound patterns of a particular language. 
Phonetics is concerned with the physical properties of sounds while phonology deals more 
with how the sounds function in a language. There are some other aspects to Phonology 
which study specific things. These include: Generative Phonology, Auto-segmental 
Phonology, Metrical Phonology, Lexical Phonology, etc. The person who specialises in 
Phonology is a Phonologist. 
Branches of linguistics 
Due to the intricate structure of languages and their far-reaching impact, there are various 
subfields, domains, and specialised branches of linguistics. Here are the main branches of 
linguistics with examples. 
1. Psycholinguistics - Psycholinguistics is amongst the most popular branches of linguistics 
that studies the relationship between psychological processes and linguistic behaviour. An 
example of psycholinguistics is found in the study of how humans perceive language and 
why certain words have the capacity to trigger us emotionally, more so than other words. 
Such branches of linguistics also seek to understand how humans acquire and master 
languages. Psycholinguists often work with child psychologists and conduct research on 
speech and language development to understand how humans perceive and produce 
language. 
2. Sociolinguistics - This is another one of those branches of linguistics that serves a crucial 
function in our understanding and application of linguistics. Because language is a deeply 
human and social construct, socio-linguistics deals with the effect of different aspects of 
society 
on 
language. 
On top of that, it studies the interaction of languages as people from different cultures and 
heritage interact. One example of sociolinguistics is the emergence of different dialects of 
a language, as is the study of language confluence, such as Hindi and 
English
 being spoken 
together as Hinglish. 
3. Applied linguistics - Applied linguistics involves the practical use of linguistics to solve 
real-life problems. Linguists make use of other fields such as 
sociology
, 

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psychology, 
anthropology
, etc. to better understand how to apply their study of linguistics 
to 
help 
people 
and 
solve 
real-world 
concerns. 
It is best to understand such branches of linguistics with examples. Applied linguistics can 
be seen in speech therapy, translating texts from different cultures or ages, and even in the 
process 
of 
second-language 
acquisition. 
4. Computational linguistics - This is a relatively new branch of linguistics that deals with the 
use of language by computers and programs. Such branches of linguistics leverage 
computer science to analyse, model, and produce speech. One example of computational 
linguistics is the AI-driven Google Assistant that uses natural language processing and 
speech 
recognition 
systems 
to 
do 
your 
bidding. 
5. Comparative linguistics - As the name suggests, this branch is associated with identifying 
similarities and differences between languages that have a common origin. For instance, 
romance languages like Italian, 
French
, and Spanish differ in speech and construction even 
though they all originated from Vulgar Latin of the Roman era. Studies in comparative 
linguistics also include studying distant languages, such as Sanskrit and 
German
 that are 
separated by thousands of kilometres and years, but which nevertheless have structural and 
etymological 
similarities. 
6. 
Historical linguistics - This is one of the more intriguing branches of linguistics. It studies 
the evolution of languages over a period of time and analyses the changes that took place 
within them. One of the purposes of this branch is the examination of ‘dead’ languages, 
such as Latin, 
Sanskrit
, Ancient Greek, etc., and the emergence of current languages from 
them. Historical linguistics also enables us to reconstruct earlier stages of languages to 
understand how grammar, semantics, and phonetics can change over time. 
26.Phonological theories. 
A theory of phonological development must account for the development of all the characteristics 
of an adult phonology as specified by phonological theory, as well as the known facts of child 
phonology not covered by phonological theory. In addition, it should be consistent with a broader 
theory of language development, relatable to theories of other aspects of development, and 
empirically testable. Four major types of theories are examined, using examples from the Leopold 
diary and other sources: behaviorist theories of several kinds that emphasize the role of 
reinforcement; structuralist theories based on a universal hierarchy of phonological structure that 
determines the order of acquisition (Jakobson and others); the natural phonology theory, which 
assumes a universal, innate hierarchy of phonological processes (Stampe); and the prosodie theory, 
which emphasizes the importance of input to the child and the development of perception 
(Waterson). The theories are compared and are seen to be incompatible because of different goals 
and lack of data on questions of fact. Several major issues are identified for research and theoretical 
elaboration. 
The infant begins to utter sounds other than crying from about the age of 1 month, and at 2 months 
begins to change his pitch and articulation. Pitch and articulation then become more varied, and 
between the ages of 6 and 8 months, the child babbles repetitively. Until he is 9-months old, he 
utters sounds, not as a means of communication, but as if playing with his phonatory–articulatory 
organs. At about 9 months, he begins to reorganize his babbling phonatory–articulatory–auditory 
mechanisms and to apply them to language; that is, he begins to develop the ability to call to others 
and to respond to them with simple sounds. At about 10 months, he begins to be able to imitate 
and understand adults' speech sounds, and, at about 12 months, begins to use words. From about 
17 months, his phonemicization and symbolization develop; that is, there is a rapid increase in the 
number of phonemes articulated and the number of words used. 

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Contemporary theories of phonology include optimality theory, nonlinear phonology, and 
representation-based accounts of children’s speech. Each of these offers alternative explanations 
as well as descriptions of speech acquisition and SSD in children. 
Most current phonological theories have arisen out of linguistics. • linguists are attempting to 
understand how language is organized in the brain. • They have not yet succeeded. • No one theory 
currently is used by all SLPs 
Up to the 1950s, the focus had been on analysis of what the speaker produced (surface form). • All 
current theories are based on the idea of features as abstract things stored in the brain • It’s believed 
that what is in the brain and what is produced may not be the same. 
In this theory the basic unit is the feature (not the phoneme) • features can't be broken into smaller 
units. • Features are binary; all phonemes either have [+] or don't have [-] a particular feature. • 
Several feature systems have been proposed. 
Proponents of this theory believe that phonemes are stored in the brain as “bundles of features”. • 
Like phonemes, features are considered to be abstract mental notions. • Features are called 
“distinctive” because they allow us to distinguish among phonemes.
27. The St. Petersburg and Moscow Phonological schools. 
The differences between the Moscow Phonological School (MPS) and the
Leningrad(Ščerbian) Phonological School (LPS) lie in their attitude to the status of the phonemeas 
a unit of the language system. For MPS, the phoneme is an element of the morpheme,and the
phonemic identity of a sound unit is defined by the allophone in the strong(stressed) 
position. Thus an allophone can represent different phonemes, and one pho-neme can be 
represented by allophones belonging to different phonemes. A ‘hyper-pho-nemic situation’ arises 
when no strong position can be found; weak phonemes are viewedon par with the phonemes in the 
strong position.For the LPS the autonomous nature of the phoneme is supported by its
potentialidentification with meaningful linguistic units (words and morphemes). The system
ofphonemes thus constitutes an independent level of the language system; the sound iden-tity is
defined by distribution laws. Phonetic (and historic) alternations lead to thechanges in the 
phonemic structure of the morphemes.The speech activity of the language users is of no
interest for the MPS, whereasŠčerba’s followers tend to explore the links between the
systemic organization of pho-nemes and laws of speech production and perception.
Experimental studies, practicalapplication of the phonological theory and speech technology are 
in the center of atten-tion of this school.Principles underlying the phoneme inventory definition 
are also different (for exam-ple, the phonological status of /y / and palatalized velar consonants, 
and the phonologyof the front-back distinction for the Russian vowels). 
The phoneme theory was first formulated at the end of the 19
th
century. Its founder was Prof. I.A. 
Baudouin de Courtenay (Kazan, St. Petersburg). Though his theory lacks consistency and there 
are some drawbacks in it. It initiated the development of the phoneme theory in Russia as well as 
abroad. 
The various phonological schools chiefly differ in their solution of the two main problems of 
phonology: (1) the definition of the inventory of the phonemes of a given language and (2) the 
definition of the phonemic status of speech sounds in unstressed positions. 
The phoneme theory in Russia is developing in two directions. Hence, two phonological schools 
are distinguished here: the Moscow School and the St. Petersburg School. 

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To the Moscow School belong R.I. Avanesov, R. I. Reformatsky, P.S. Kuznetsov, N.P. Yakovlev, 
V.N. Sidorov and their supporters. They have developed Baudounfs morphonological conception 
of the early period. They investigate the phoneme mostly on the basis of the Russian language. 
+To the St. Petersburg school belong L. Scherba and his followers (L.R. Zinder, O.I. Dikushina, 
M.I. Matusevitch, V.A. Vassilyev, G.P. Torsuyev and others). They investigate the problem on the 
basis of foreign languages. 
28. The Prague and London Phonological schools. Phonological trends in the USA and other 
countries 
The fundamental scientific works have been done by the representatives of the Prague 
phonological school - well-known linguists W. Matezius (1882-1945), B. Havranek (1893-1978), 
N.S.Trubetzkoy (1890-1938), B. Trnka, I. Vachek, V. Skalichka and.otbers. Among them very 
important phonological ideas were advanced by the Russian scholar N.S. Trubetzkoy. In his book 
«Principles of Phonology» first published in German in 1939, N.S. Trubetzkoy discussed the 
relation of phonology to other studies, the nature of phonemes and their variants, how to determine 
the phonemes of a language, relations between phonemes in general analysis and in particular 
languages, the classification of phonological and non-phonological oppositions, neutralization, 
mono- and biphonemic combinations, phonological statistics, boundary-markers (junctures) and 
prosodic elements (syllables, stress and intonation). His theoretical work on phonology shows «... 
the breadth of Trubetzkoy’s knowledge and the intricacy and incisiveness and cerebral character 
of his scientific analysis». 
The London phonological School 
The London School of Phonology was headed by Prof. Daniel Jones and represents the 
physical conception of the phoneme. 
In his monograph “The Phoneme: its nature and use” Jones writes that the idea of the 
phoneme was first introduced to him in 1911 by Prof Scerba in Leningrad. He sticks to the 
original mentalistic definition of the phoneme but he finds it inconvenient for practical 
purposes. His definition of a phoneme is the following: phoneme is a family of sounds in