O’ganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (nazariy grammatika, leksikologiya, stilistika)

a given language which are related in character and are used in such a way that no one 
member ever occurs in a word in the same phonetic context as any other member. 
In his “An Outline of English Phonetics” he gives a similar definition: a phoneme is a 
family of sounds consisting of an important sound of the language together with other 
related sounds which take place in particular sound-sequences or under particular 
conditions of length or stress. He emphasizes the fact that different members of the same 
phoneme are mutually exclusive. For example, the [k] which is used in keep cannot be 
used in call where we use a labialized [k]. 
His theory of a phoneme may be called “atomistic”. He breaks up the phoneme into atoms 
and considers different features of phonemes as independent phenomena. He speaks of 
different qualities of the same phoneme as “phones”, a number of which forms the 
corresponding phoneme. He also speaks of different degrees of length as “chrones” which 
are combined into “chronemes” that are distinctive in a language, for example, the long 
and the short chronemes in English. In the same way he distinguishes tones and tonemes in 
tone languages and strones and stronemes (for different degrees of stress). 
Length and tone have no importance without other sound features. They exist only in 
phonemes and all their characteristic features taken together make up a phoneme which is 
linguistically distinctive. 

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29. The principal types of English pronunciation in GB. 
The 
Principal 
Types 
of 
English 
Pronunciation 
 
The pronunciation of words varies considerably among the different regions in which English is
spoken, so that we easily distinguish speakers according to their pronunciation. The pron
unciation
features of dialects are studied by a special branch of phonetics, namely dialectological phonetics
. 
It 
is
possible to investigate the literary and dialect pronunciations of the same language. The l
iterary
language has its orthoepic norm, i.e. the sum of rules of the spoken form characterized by the uni
ty 
of
the sound material formed in the process of its historical development. By the term nor
m 
we 
mean
more or less constant and stable feature of pronunciation, e.i. all the components of the
phonetic
structure — phonemes, syllables, stress and intonation. Sometimes “Good English” is dist
inguished
from “Bad English” (“Vulgar English”). On the basis of its usage the following principal varietie
s 
of
English are distinguished: (1) Formal English, (2) General English, (3) Informal English, (4)
Nonstandard 
English. 
English was brought to the American continent by the English colonists in 
the first half of the 
 
sixteenth century. There are at least three major speech areas in the USA: (1) the Easter
n 
type 
of
pronunciation; (2) 
the Southern type
; (3) the Western general American type.
L.V. Shcherba’s classification of styles of speech into two types: 1) colloquial style used in
peoples’ conversation and in such a speech the sound structure, word accentuation and intonation
may
change considerably; 2) full style, in which the sound structure, word accentuation and intonatio
n 
are
distinct and speech sounds are pronounced clearly and carefully.
The inventory of their phonemes may be slightly different, i.e. they may have phonemes not found 
in other dialects. For instance, the Scottish variant of English has the velar fricative voiceless 
phoneme similar to the Russian [x], non-existent in RP and most other types of English 
pronunciation: of [lɒx] (loch – озеро) – [lɒk] (lock – замок). The same sound [æ] also occurs in 
some minor local dialects in Great Britain, e.g. the word enough is pronounced [əˈnjux] instead of 
[ı'nʌf] or [ə'nʌf] occurring in RP and most other types of English pronunciation. 
30. The relationship between the principal types of English pronunciation and their dialects 
The term dialect is often used in the sense of regional, local or geographic varieties of a language 
mainly used in oral speech. A language belongs to a nation or nations, as English does, therefore 
it is a social phenomenon, understandable by all its members. A language is not a complex 
combination of individual speech forms, but it has its literary orthoepic (pronunciation) and 
orthographic (written) rules. These are regarded as an object of sociolinguistics, which is an 
interdisciplinary branch of modern linguistics. The phonetic and phonological features of 
a language — dialect relationship, natural bilingualism and also some types of speech communities 
classified by their social characteristics are studied in a new branch of phonetics, namely social 
phonetics. This is an artificial bilingualism is studied in comparative typological phonetics or 
phonogy which is a part of comparative — typological linguistics [1]. Abroad it is known as 

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contrastive linguistics (it is branch is contrastive phonetics) more often used in the USA. It is also 
called confrontative linguistics in Germany. The individual speech of a member of a language 
community is known as an idiolect. Idiolects and dialect speakers are identifiable by their sounds, 
tone or melody, words and also by expressions and constructions, i. e. by their phonetics, 
grammatical, lexical and stylistic features. The distinction between a language and dialect is based 
on criterion of functional approach. Functionally a language is characterized by the acceptance of 
the communication unit and elaboration of function in society. If two or more languages are spoken 
(as in Canada English and French are official languages), they are called bilinguals (speakers in 
two languages) and this process is known as bilingualism. Bilingualism may be of two types: 1) 
natural, when people speak two languages which have mutual contact; 2) artificial bilingualism 
appears in second language learning when the mother tongue (its pronunciation habits, grammar, 
lexicology) influences the language studied. Now let us look through the principal types of English 
pronunciation with its dialects which is the result of social, educational, trade, cultural, migration 
and urbanization factors. Correlation between these factors may be noticed in the process of 
language change and dialect variations. Ch. Barber states: «One way in which the English language 
has been changing in recent years is the relationship between the different kinds of English spoken 
in England, and in people’s attitudes to; these varieties of the language» [2]. Other ways of 
changing RP may be explained by the influence of American English pronunciation types heard 
in the cinema, on the wireless and television and on records of popular singers etc. A. C. Gimson 
also pointed out the influence of the London dialect to RP such as the pronunciations of [o:] instead 
of [ɔ:], [ʌ] instead of [ɜ:], monophthongization of [eɪ] as [ɛ:] in words like saw [so:], fur [fʌ:], day 
[dɛ:]. In modern RP pronunciation the influence of Southern English may be found such as the 
unrounding of [u] = [ə] (good), coalescence of [ɔ:] whith [ɔə] (more) and sometimes with [uə] 
(poor), centralization of the first element of the diphthong [ou] = [əu] (go) [3]. These changes may 
be found in the Australian English pronunciation in which they are regarded as the orthoepic norm. 
These examplese show the intradialectal influences and contacts between the principal types of 
pronunciation (RP and GAu). These are also intraidiolectal phonetic variations defined as the 
varuations in the pronunciation of one and the same native speaker of a language, i.e. those within 
one and the same idiolect. V. A. Vassiliyev distinguished two types of intraidiolectal variations. 
The first type of intraidiolectal phonetic variations are spontaneous, accidental, unintentional, 
unconditioned, non-functional, and therefore absolutely non-distinctive linguistically. For 
example, though the pronunciation of one and the same sound, word or a phase may be different 
acoustically, through identical and non-distinctive from the linguistic point of view. The second 
type of intradialectical phonetic variations may be intentional and conditioned by different styles 
of speech [4], i.e. colloquial and full styles of pronunciation (see next paragraph). Some terms 
have been suggested for use in the intradialectal and interidiolectal phonetic variations. The term 
diaphone (D. Jones) is defined as a sound to denote a sound together with other sounds which 
replace it consistently in the pronunciation of other speakers. For example, different types of [ai] 
or [r] may be regarded as members of the same diaphone. The idiophone is used to denote a sound 
pronounced in one idiolect in place of a different sound pronounced in other idiolects in the same 
phonetic context as allophones of the same phoneme. These terms are equivalent to free variants 
of phonemes. Free variants of phonemes are those which substitute each other in the same context. 
It is possible to use the term variphone in the sense of free variations of phoneme in the same 
context. The term variphone may be used not only in the interdialectal and interidiolectal variations 
but also within one and the same language [5]. For example, in the word direct which is transcribed 
[dɪrect] and [daɪrect] the phonemes [ɪ] and [ai] may be members of a variphone. Likewise, in the 
word again [əʹgeɪn], [əʹgɛn] the vowels [eɪ] and [ɛ] may also be members of a variphone. There 
are also accentual and intonational variations of which the latter have not been investigated at all. 
As to the teaching standart of English, V. A. Vassilyev suggested two basic criteria for choice: 1) 
the degree of understandability of this or that type has been scientifically investigated and 
practically described in a number of textbooks, dictionaries, audiovisual aids etc. These criteria 
have been applied to both RP and GA which are chosen as teaching units in many countries. 

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31The pronunciation types of English in the USA.
General American English Pronunciation (GAEP) is a kind of standard pronunciation 
found in American dictionaries such as the Merriam Webster. We should not confuse Standard 
American English Pronunciation with Standard American English. The latter is the name for the 
grammar and vocabulary of the written and spoken variety generally used in the fields of 
education, law and government. 
GAEP is not the only kind of pronunciation found in the United States of America. There 
are several others but the two main kinds are: the New England accent and the Southern English 
accent. 
The English started to colonize America in the early 1600s. They came from different areas 
of the UK and and were from different social classes. The Puritans settled in New England and 
other settlers in Virginia. Those who settled New England mostly came from the South East of 
England and the London area and were from the middle and lower classes. The settlers in Virginia 
were mostly from the upper classes. Both these groups were in touch with England and had non-
rhotic accents. 
The reason why American English is generally rhotic is that during the colonization period 
many parts of England were rhotic, for example, the South West -as we saw when we looked at 
Cornish English. Also many settlers came from Ireland and Scotland which are also rhotic. 
32The pronunciation of English in other English-speaking countries
Canadians tend to sound like Americans to most people from outside North America; 
distinctive features include the rhotic pronunciation of car, the ‘d’-like pronunciation of bottle, and 
the use of American alternatives like ‘tomayto’ for British English ‘tomahto,’ and ‘skedule’ for 
British English ‘shedule.’ 
Canadian English does not follow American English in all such cases; British English 
preferences are found in words like news, which is pronounced ‘nyoos’ rather than ‘noos’, and in 
the pronunciation of anti-, where American English has ‘antai’. While Canadian English follows 
American 
English 
in 
much 
of 
its 
vocabulary, 
compare 
gas 
(British 
English petrol), sidewalk (BrEng pavement), trunk (BrEng boot), it preserves English words such 
as tap (American English faucet), cutlery (American silverware), and serviette (American napkin). 
Canadian English spelling tends to follow British conventions, as in honour, colour, centre, 
and theatre, although some individual words, like curb and tire, follow the American practice. 
The same process of dialect mixing that triggered a distinctive American variety lies behind 
the Englishes spoken in Australia and New Zealand. British convicts who were deported to 
Australia in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were frequently of Cockney and Irish 
extraction, so that these dialects have a particular importance for the formation of the distinctive 
Australian accent. Colonial lag is evident in the preservation of some archaic English words, such 
as the Australian tucker ‘food,’ from the word tuck, still preserved in old-fashioned English tuck 
shops and tuck boxes, and dunny ‘toilet,’ which was current in English slang of the late eighteenth 
century. 
Other features which are uniquely Australian are words formed by adding an ‘ie’ ending, 
as in barbie ‘barbeque,’ coldie ‘cold beer,’ rellies ‘relatives,’ and even Aussie, as well as 
contractions like arvo ‘afternoon,’ journo ‘journalist,’ and beaut ‘beauty.’ British settlers in 
Australia adopted local words from Aboriginal languages to describe cultural objects and practices 
specific to Australia, such as the boomerang, from the Dharuk language, and indigenous animals 
such as koala, wallaby, and kangaroo. 
33Components of the phonetic structure of English. 
The English phonetic system comprises the four components: speech sounds, syllabic word 
structure, stress, and intonation. To make it simple, it describes the way we produce and perceive 

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the sounds of speech. Most ESL textbooks explain these components using the International 
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) which is described below. 
Phonics vs Phonetics 
Sometimes the meaning of phonics is limited to a simplified definition of phonetics. But it is 
incorrect. Phonetics is the academic study of the sounds of a language. Hence, this science is a 
branch of linguistics. Phonics is a method of teaching to read when each letter is pronounced as in 
the alphabet. 
Phonetics vs Phonology 
The phonetics and phonology difference can be explained by their approaches and methods as a 
science. The former is a descriptive discipline that analyzes separate sounds we use in a language. 
The latter is more theoretical and explores the patterns of sounds, their system, and combination. 
34The phonemic system of the English language.
The phonemic system of a language is a set of linguistic units which forms the basis for 
higher levels of language structure. Knowledge of the system develops in the child during the 
language-learning period and is normally accompanied by development of the capacity for 
differentiating articulations. It is necessary, however, to distinguish the phonemic units from the 
articulations which correspond to them. 
The child's language at any stage is not an imperfect version of adult language; it is itself a 
complete functional system which is capable of expansion. At the phonological level, the child 
begins with a restricted system of two or three units and the framework of the system expands 
until, by the age of about five years, the child has developed the complete adult system of about 
forty units (in English). 
Development of the phonemic system implies also the developing of appropriate acoustic 
cues which are used in both the decoding and the encoding of speech. 
35Vowel-consonant distinctions. 
A vowel is a speech sound made with your mouth fairly open, the nucleus of a spoken 
syllable. 
A consonant is a sound made with your mouth fairly closed. 
When we talk, consonants break up the stream of vowels (functioning as syllable onsets 
and codas), so that we don’t sound like we’ve just been to the dentist for four fillings and the 
anaesthetic hasn’t worn off yet. 
Consonants require more precise articulation than vowels, which is why children find them 
harder to learn, and often end up in speech therapy after having become so cross at not being 
understood that they’ve started hitting people. 
Only a few children with severe speech sound difficulties (often called dyspraxia or 
apraxia) sometimes need therapy to help them produce vowel sounds correctly. 
Most syllables contain a vowel, though vowel-like consonants can occasionally be 
syllables. And to complicate matters, many English vowels are technically two or three vowels 
shmooshed together 
36The system of consonant phonemes in English 
Usually the distinction between a vowel and a consonant is regarded to be not phonetic; but
phonemic. From the phonetic point of view the distinction between a vowel and a conson
ant is based
on their articulatory — acoustic characteristics, i.e. vowel is produced as a pure musical t
one without
any 
obstruction 
of 
air-
stream in the mouth cavity while in the production of a consonant there is an
obstruction of air-stream in the speech tract.

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The general phonetic principles of the classification of consonant sounds are as follo
ws: 1)
the place of articulation; 2) the manner of production; 3) the presence or absence
of voice; 4) the
position of the soft palate.
The next principle of the classification of consonants is based on the presence or abse
nce of
voce, according to which voiced and voiceless consonants may be distinguished.
The comparative tables of the English and Uzbek consonant phonemes are bas
ed on their
articulatory and acoustic classification. These tables give a general idea of the diff
erences and
identities of the consonant phonemes and of the pure phonetic features of the isol
ated consonant
phonemes.
37The system of the English vowel phonemes
English has around 20 distinct vowel phonemes. This makes it one of the most complex 
vowel systems of any language in the world. Let’s get into the details. 
In order to count the number of English vowel sounds, we need to know what counts as a vowel. 
Technically speaking, vowels are produced by releasing air from the lungs through the oral and/or 
nasal cavity. From there, we typically modify these sounds with our vocal cords, mouth and lips 
to produce distinct vowel sounds. 
However, this description can also include sounds like the W in “with,” the Y in “year” 
and the R “red.” But these are not vowels because they lack the vital characteristic that all vowels 
have in common: Vowels are syllabic, meaning they can be a syllable all on their own. 
From here, we can divide English vowel sounds up into a couple of categories: short vowels, long 
vowels, diphthongs, vowels before historical R, and weak vowels. First, the distinction between 
short and long vowels is pretty self-explanatory. Next, diphthongs are vowel phonemes that begin 
as one vowel sound and slide into another, but still only make up one syllable. 
38The syllabic structure in English. Syllable formation. Syllable division.
We can divide words into one or more syllables. For example, tin has one 
syllable, brother has two, important has three and computer has four syllables each. 
A syllable is a group of one or more sounds. The essential part of a syllable is a vowel 
sound (V) which may be preceded and/or followed by a consonant (C) or a cluster of consonants 
(CC or CCC) (see below). Some syllables consist of just one vowel sound (V) as 
in I and eye/aI/, owe/ə/. In English, a syllable can consist of a vowel preceded by one consonant 
(CV) as in pie/paI/, or by two consonants (CCV) as in try/traI/, or by three consonants (CCCV) as 
in spry/spraI/. The vowel of the syllable may also be followed by one consonant (VC) as in at/æt/, 
or by two consonants (VCC) as in its/Its/, or by three consonants (CVCCC) as in text/tekst/or by 
four consonants (CVCCCC) as in texts/teksts/. 
39The nature of word stress. The main types of word stress.
Word stress, also called lexical stress, is an important suprasegmental feature in English 
because it determines so many other aspects of pronunciation. 
Word Stress 
First, word stress determines which vowels in a word will be pronounced with a clear 
vowel vs. schwa. 

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Second, word stress impacts the pronunciation of consonants: the unvoiced stop consonants /t/, /p/ 
and /k/ are pronounced in English with aspiration either initially or in stressed syllables, but 
without aspiration in non-initial unstressed syllables. 
Third, word stress determines which vowel(s) in a word will be pronounced longer vs. 
shorter, including which vowel gets the primary stress and can therefore be marked with even 
greater length via focus. 
Fourth, word stress determines which syllable is marked with the highest pitch, lowest pitch 
or some other distinct pitch change. 
Finally, word stress also determines which syllable, if any, will be marked via increased 
volume. 
40Degrees of word stress
When we speak about the degrees of word stress in the given language we have
to take into consideration, as it has been mentioned above, the number of functionally
opposed degrees of energy within the word. In this case we speak about the
functional or linguistic aspect of word stress.
Structurally, from a linguistic point of view, in every language there exists a
functional discrimination of definite degrees of stress, the number of which may be
different in different languages.
To understand the question one should take into consideration those stressed
syllables which are phonologically opposed to unstressed syllables of the word and
may therefore be said to be stressed.
Degrees of stress may be opposed to each other in case of primary and
secondary stress as a stressed syllable to another stressed syllable.
The linguistic explanation of the existence of three degrees of stress can be
found in the above-mentioned scientific works by G.P. Torsuyev, M.A. Sokolova and
others. The majority of English phoneticians assert that there are three degrees of
stress in English: primary, secondary and unstressed 
41The nature of intonation, its definitions.
intonation, in phonetics, the melodic pattern of an utterance. It conveys differences of 
expressive meaning (e.g., surprise, anger, or delight), and it can also serve a grammatical function. 
Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch of the voice. In such languages as 
English, it is often accompanied by stress and rhythm to produce meaning. (Tone is also a form of 
pitch modulation, but the term describes the use of pitch to differentiate words and grammatical 
categories.)In many languages, including English, intonation distinguishes one type of phrase or 
sentence from another. The different intonations a person can use to say, “The cup of water is over 
there” demonstrate this grammatical function: when a person begins with a medium pitch and ends 
with a lower one (falling intonation), this sentence is a simple assertion, but when a person uses a 
rising intonation (high final pitch), it is a question. 
42The components of intonation. The nature of emphatic intonation 
Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of 
intonation in English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation. 
Falling intonation 

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Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or 
a group of words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions. 
Where’s the nearest p↘ost-office? 
What time does the film f↘inish? 
We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be 
very clear about something: 
I think we are completely l↘ost. 
OK, here’s the magaz↘ine you wanted. 
See also: 
Questions: wh-questions 
Rising intonation 
Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation 
is common in yes-no questions: 
I hear the Health Centre is expanding. So, is that the new d↗octor? 
Are you th↗irsty? 
Fall-rise intonation 
Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise intonation 
at the end of statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to 
add: 
I do↘n’t support any football team at the m↘om↗ent. (but I may change my mind in 
future). 
It rained every day in the firs↘t w↗eek. (but things improved after that). 
We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or invite 
somebody to do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the questions sound more 
polite: 
Is this your cam↘er↗a? 
Would you like another co↘ff↗ee? 
43Styles of pronunciation.
Styles of speech or pronunciation are those special forms of speech suited to the aim and 
the contents of the utterance, the circumstances of communication, the character of the audience, 
etc. A person may pronounce the same word or sequence of words quite differently under different 

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circumstances. (in colloquial ' and' [n] when unstressed ( bread and butter ['bredn 'bute]) but in 
serious conversation even when unstressed, might often be pronounced [ænd]) 
1. D.Jones distinguishes the rapid familiar style, the slower colloquial style, the natural 
style used in addressing a fair-sized audience, the acquired style of the stage, and the acquired style 
used in singing. 
2. LV Shcherba: (1) colloquial style characteristic of people's quiet talk, and (2) full style, 
which we use when we want to make our speech especially distinct. 
44Combinatory – positional changes of phonemes.
phones representing phonemes, are combined in strict order to form words,
morphemes, 
word-
combinations and sentences which influence each other, as a result of which their
articulatory – acoustic features may be changed and modified. These changes in pronunci
ation, which
depend on the way they influence one another, their position and stress — are cal
led combinatory – 
positional changes (or “combinatory phonetics”).
The process when the articulation of a sound under the influence of the articulat
ion of a
neighbouring sound becomes similar or takes on features of the neighbouring soun
d, is called
assimilation. Assimilation is a result of a modification process of adjacent phonemes.
There are cases when the articulation of a consonant is modified under the influ
ence of an
adjacent vowel, which is called adaptation, or accommodation.
The phonetic changes, which results in a sharpening of the difference between two pho
nemes,
is called dissimilation.
Elision, is the omission of a sound in rapid speech, e.g. an old man, and so.
Haplology, is the process of dropping a group of sounds which should be articulated twic
e in a
word, e.g. morphonology for morphonology, probably 
45Phonotactic rules in English 
In phonology, phonotactics is the study of the ways in which phonemes are allowed to 
combine in a particular language. (A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound capable of conveying 
a distinct meaning.) Adjective: phonotactic. 
Over time, a language may undergo phonotactic variation and change. For example, as 
Daniel Schreier points out, "Old English phonotactics admitted a variety of consonantal sequences 
that are no longer found in contemporary varieties" (Consonant Change in English Worldwide, 
2005). 
Understanding Phonotactic Constraints 
Phonotactic constraints are rules and restrictions concerning the ways in 
which syllables can be created in a language. Linguist Elizabeth Zsiga observes that languages "do 
not allow random sequences of sounds; rather, the sound sequences a language allows are a 
systematic and predictable part of its structure." 

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Phonotactic constraints, says Zsiga, are "restrictions on the types of sounds that are allowed 
to occur next to each other or in particular positions in the word" ("The Sounds of Language" in An 
Introduction to Language and Linguistics, 2014). 
According to Archibald A. Hill, the term phonotactics (from the Greek for "sound" + 
"arrange") was coined in 1954 by American linguist Robert P. Stockwell, who used the term in an 
unpublished lecture delivered at the Linguistic Institute in Georgetown. 
46Lexicology as a subject. 
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, it is study of words. 
The term is composed of two Greek morphemes: logos – learning, Lexus – word, phrase. 
Thus the literal meaning of the term is the science of the word. 
LG is a branch of linguistics and has its own aims and methods of scientific research. Its 
basic task is to study and descript systematically the vocabulary in respect to its origin, 
development and current use. 
LG is concerned with words, variable workgroups, phrasiological units and with 
morphemes. Modern English LG investigates the problems of word structure and word formation 
in modern English. 
The semantic structure of English words, the main principles underline the classification 
of vocabulary units into various groupings, the laws, governing, and the development of the 
vocabulary. 
It also studies the variation, existing between various lexical layers of the English 
vocabulary and the specific laws and regulations that govern its development at the present time. 
The source and the growth of the EV and the changes. 
Branches: 
The General LG – the general study of words and vocabulary. Linguistic phenomena and 
properties common to all languages are generally referred as language universals. 
The Special LG – is the LG of a particular language. That’s the study of and description of 
its vocabulary and vocabulary units. 
The Historical LG – the evolution of any vocabulary. It discusses the origin of various 
words, their change and development, investigates linguistics and extra linguistics forces. The 
object - its single elements, modifying their structure, meaning and usage. 
The Contrastive and Comparative LG - their aims are to study the correlation between the 
vocabularies of 2 or more languages and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary 
units. 
The descriptive LG – deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its 
development. 
LG also studies all kinds of semantic grouping and semantic relations such as synonymy, 
antonymy, homonymy, semantic fields. Meaning relations as a whole are dealed within semantics 
– the Study of meaning. 
47.Meaning as a subject of Semasiology. 
The branch of the study of language concerned with the meaning of words and word 
equivalents is called semasiology. The name comes from the Greek word semasia meaning 
signification. As semasiology deals not with every kind of meaning but with the lexical meaning 
only, it may be regarded as a branch of Lexicology. 
This does not mean that a semasiologist need not pay attention to the grammatical meaning. 
On the contrary, the grammatical meaning must be taken into consideration in so far as it bears a 
specific influence upon the lexical meaning. 

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If treated diachronically, semasiology studies the change in meaning which words undergo. 
Descriptive synchronic approach demands a study not of individual words but of semantic 
structures typical of the language studied and of its general semantic system. 
Sometimes the words semasiology and semantics are used indiscriminately. They are really 
synonyms but the word semasiology has one meaning, the word semantics has several meanings. 
Academic or pure semantics is a branch of mathematical logic originated by Carnap. Its 
aim is to build an abstract theory of relationships between signs and their referents. It is a part of 
semiotics – the study of signs and languages in general, including all sorts of codes (traffic signals, 
military signals). Unlike linguistic semantics which deals with real languages, pure semantics has 
as its subject formalised language. 
Semasiology is one of the youngest branches of linguistics, although the objects of its study 
have attracted the attention of philosophers and grammarians since the times of antiquity. A 
thousand years before our era Chinese scholars were interested in semantic change. We find the 
problems of word and notion relationship discussed in the works of Plato and Aristotle and the 
famous grammarian Panini. 
48The extension and the restriction of meaning of words. 
The result of semantic change can be observed in: 1) restriction (or narrowing) of meaning. 
Restriction of meaning is the capacity of a word to narrow its meaning in the course of historical 
development; 
2) 
extention(orwidening)ofmeaning. It is the expantion of polymemy in the course of its hist
orical development, i. e. it is the widening of meaning. Ex. The word “fowl” meant in old English 
“any bird” but in modern English it denotes “ a domestic hen or cock,- old meaning of “affiction” 
was -any feeling, new meaning is a felling of love. The word “juke” originally meant 
sailor’swordmeaning“oldrope”.Now 
itmeans“rubbishuseless stuff”. This is an example of extention of meaning. The word “meat” 
originally meant “food” now it means one special type of food. This is an example of narrowing 
of meaning. As a result of change of meaning o word may get a new meaning which will be broader 
or more generalized than the old one. Ex. season. The old meaning of the word “season” was 
“spring”. The new meaning is any part of the year. Here is another example. The old meaning 
of “to bootleg” was to sell alcocholic drinks illegally” New meaning is “ to sell anothing 
illegally”.
49.The definition, classification and sources of homonyms. 
Homonyms. Classification and sources of homonyms 
Two or more words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning, distribution and 
(in many cases) origin are called h o m o n y m s. Of 2540 homonyms given in Oxford dictionary 89% 
are monosyllabic words and only 9,1% are words of two syllables. Homonyms are not typical of 
Ukrainian. 
There are several classifications of homonyms. One of them is based on the type of meaning 
and according to it homonyms may be classified into lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical. 
Lexical homonyms belong to one and the same part of speech and the grammatical meanings 
of all their forms are identical, but they are different in their lexical meaning. E.g., ball
1
– a round 
object used in games, ball