Superconductivity, including high-temperature superconductivity
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- INTRODUCTION
- 1. PROPAGATION OF COHERENT WAVES IN NONLINEAR LAYERED STRUCTURES
CONCLUSION In this study we have shown that the piezoelectric inter- action in GaAs heterostructures can play an important role in the orientation of inhomogeneous two-dimensional elec- tronic structures relative to the crystallographic axes of the surrounding matrix. Using the actual form of the anisotropy of the elastic constants in GaAs, we have found the aniso- tropic contribution to the energy of the stripe structure real- ized on the ͑001͒ plane. For a single-layer system in an infinite medium the mini- mum of the energy corresponds to orientation of the wave vector of the stripe structure at an angle Ϸ30° to the ͓100͔ axis. However the local maximum at ϭ /4 is so flat that all directions in the interval 30° Ͻ Ͻ60° are actually equi- probable, i.e., on average the wave vector is directed along the ͓110͔ axis. Let us analyze the influence of the surface of the sample on the piezoelectric mechanism for orientation of the stripes in GaAs. It has been found that in the case when the two- dimensional electron layer is located on the surface ͑physi- cally this corresponds to a depth of the electron layer much smaller than the period of the electronic structure ͒ the behav- ior of the anisotropic contribution to the energy is practically constant in comparison with the case of an infinite medium. For finite ratios of the depth d of the electron layer to the period a of the stripe structure some small qualitative changes take place. When this ratio is Ϸ0.5 the local maxi- mum at
/4 goes over to a global minimum. At d/a Ϸ0.15, on the other hand, the orientation along the low- symmetry direction, Ϸ30°, is stabilized. The results obtained here explain the experimentally ob- served stripe orientation along the ͓110͔ direction in a quan- tum Hall system. Since the absolute value of the anisotropy energy is rather small ͑approximately four orders of magni- tude smaller than the Coulomb energy ͒, an external influence ͑e.g., an external magnetic field containing a component par- allel to the electron layer ͒ can lead to reorientation of stripe structures, as has been observed experimentally. We have considered the piezoelectric mechanism of stripe orientation in two-layer electron systems ͑with layers parallel to the ͑001͒ plane͒. In such systems the model pre- dicts an effect wherein the stripes are reoriented along the ͓100͔ axis as the distance between layers decreases or the period of the stripe structure increases ͑the ratio of these two lengths must become smaller than unity ͒. The observation of such an effect would provide experimental proof that the piezoelectric mechanism plays the main role in the orienta- tion of the electronic structures in two-dimensional electron systems realized at AlGaAs–GaAs heterojunctions. This study was supported in part by INTAS Grant No. 97-0972 and the Ukrainian Government Foundation for Ba- sic Research, Project No. 2.4/337. * E-mail: fil@isc.kharkov.com 1 L. Bonsall and A. A. Maradudin, Phys. Rev. B 15, 1959 ͑1977͒. 2
2562 ͑1995͒.
3 M. P. Lilly, K. B. Cooper, J. P. Eisenstein, L. N. Pfeiffer, and K. W. West, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 394 ͑1999͒.
4 R. R. Du, D. C. Tsui, H. L. Stormer, L. N. Pfeiffer, and K. W. West, Solid State Commun. 109, 389 ͑1999͒.
5 M. M. Fogler, A. A. Koulakov, and B. I. Shklovskii, Phys. Rev. B 54, 1853 ͑1996͒; A. A. Koulakov, M. M. Fogler, and B. I. Shklovskii, Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 499 ͑1996͒.
6 R. Moessner and J. T. Chalker, Phys. Rev. B 54, 5006 ͑1996͒. 7
Baldvin, and K. W. West, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 820 ͑1999͒.
8 M. P. Lilly, K. B. Cooper, J. P. Eisenstein, L. N. Pfeiffer, and K. W. West, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 824 ͑1999͒.
9 E ´ . I. Rashba and E. Ya. Sherman, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. 21, 1957 ͑1987͒ ͓Sov. Phys. Semicond. 21, 1185 ͑1987͔͒. Translated by Steve Torstveit FIG. 4. Position and depth E of the minimum of the energy versus the distance between layers. The solid curve is the position of the minimum, the dashed curve is the depth of the minimum relative to the energy value for ϭ0, and the dotted curve is the depth of the minimum relative to the energy for ϭ /4.
585 Low Temp. Phys. 26 (8), August 2000 D. V. Fil
Localization of nonlinear waves in layered media I. V. Gerasimchuk *
A. S. Kovalev **
͑Submitted April 3, 2000͒ Fiz. Nizk. Temp. 26, 799–809 ͑August 2000͒ The localization of nonlinear waves propagating in an anharmonic medium along a system of two identical plane-parallel defects ͑waveguides͒ is investigated in a simple model describing the nonlinear dynamics of layered media ͑magnetically ordered, elastic, and optical͒. A method of analytical investigation of this problem is proposed which reduces to a model of coupled anharmonic oscillators whose parameters are all determined on microscopic considerations. The results yield an adequate description of the nonlinear dynamics of layered media in the framework of well-studied discrete models of nonlinear mechanics. It is shown that when the total energy of the wave exceeds a threshold value, the state with equal energy fluxes localized near the waveguides becomes unstable, and an inhomogeneous regime is realized in which the wave flux propagates mainly along one of the plane layers. © 2000 American Institute of Physics. ͓S1063-777X͑00͒00808-2͔ INTRODUCTION Research on the structure and dynamic properties of lay- ered media of various types is now of great interest from both the theoretical and applied standpoints. We are talking primarily about magnetic multilayer systems, which are promising for the creation of elements for data storage and readout based on magnetooptical properties and the giant magnetoresistance effect 1,2 and of layered optical media used in fiber optics and optical delay lines. 3–6
We might also men- tion high-T c superconducting compounds and their isostruc- tural analogs, which contain layers with substantially differ- ent conducting and elastic properties, 7,8 and quasi-two- dimensional magnets with organic intercalation. 9 In a number of cases these layered systems exhibit pronounced nonlinear properties. 10–13 The simultaneous effect of the lay- ered nature of the medium, which substantially alters the spectrum of its linear waves and their dispersion, and the nonlinearity of the medium can give rise to new physical effects such as dependence of the transparency of the me- dium on the power of the wave being transmitted, 14,15
spatial localization of nonlinear waves in periodic structures, 10,11 and the existence of so-called gap solitons. 16,17 The goal of the present study was to investigate the structure and character of the localization of nonlinear sta- tionary waves propagating in an anharmonic medium con- taining thin plane-parallel layers having different linear prop- erties from the characteristics of the medium itself ͑planar defects
͒. We consider the case in which the difference of the properties of the main volume and the distinctive layers is such that a wave can be localized near the layers even in the linear limit, in which case the layers play the role of waveguides. Owing to the simultaneous appearance of linear localization at the defect layers and nonlinear localization due to the anharmonicity of the medium around the layers, it become possible to have a resultant localization of the wave flux in a region containing a large number of plane layers ͑the formation of a ‘‘supersoliton’’͒. This effect has been observed experimentally in planar
nonlinear optical
waveguides with a periodically modulated cross section. 10,11
The theoretical description of the nonlinear properties of lay- ered structures is typically done using discrete models for the wave amplitudes in the individual waveguides, 10,11,18
which are described phenomenologically by difference equations with arbitrary parameters. Under a number of simplifying assumptions a consistent derivation of these equations has been done in the simplest case, when the anharmonicity is taken into account only in thin layers separated by wide re- gions of linear medium. 14,15,19
We have considered the situ- ation in which all of the layered medium is substantially nonlinear and it is a nontrivial problem to find the effective nonlinearity of the individual waveguides and their effective interaction. This statement of the problem corresponds to a number
of physical
experiments 10,11
and computer
simulations. 3,4
One considers a nonlinear medium ͑magnet, elastic crys- tal, or optically transparent dielectric ͒ containing narrow lay- ers in which the properties are different and which are sepa- rated by much wider regions. In the first part we give examples of a layered easy-axis ferromagnet with different values of the single-ion anisotropy constant ͑this corresponds to the discussion in Ref. 20 ͒, an anharmonic elastic crystal containing layers ͑planar defects͒ of a higher-density mate- rial, an anharmonic optical medium with layers having a larger value
of the
linear refractive index ͑optical
waveguides, as in Refs. 3 and 4 ͒, and, finally, an optical waveguide of variable cross section ͑see Refs. 10 and 11͒. In all the cases listed, the propagation along the layered struc- ture
͑along the x axis͒ of a nonlinear monochromatic wave LOW TEMPERATURE PHYSICS VOLUME 26, NUMBER 8 AUGUST 2000 586 1063-777X/2000/26(8)/8/$20.00 © 2000 American Institute of Physics with an envelope that is slowly varying in space and time can be described by the following nonlinear Schro¨dinger equa- tion ͑NSE͒, which is standard in soliton theory: i ץ
ץ
ϩ ץ 2 u ץ
2 ϩ2
͉u͉ 2
ϭϪ ͚
␦ ͑zϪ2an͒u, ͑1͒ where the z axis is directed perpendicular to the defect lay- ers; the sign function ϭϮ1 for ‘‘focusing’’ and ‘‘defocus- ing’’ media, respectively; the planar defect is characterized by Ͼ0 in the case when the narrow layers have waveguide properties ͑they ‘‘attract’’ linear waves͒; 2a is the distance between the planar defect layers. Thus the problem is equiva- lent to the study of nonlinear excitations in a one- dimensional system containing point defects ͑nonlinear local oscillations ͒. For a single isolated defect this problem has been investigated in Refs. 21–23 for arbitrary signs of and . In the case of several defects interacting through a non- linear field, the solution of the problem becomes more awk- ward, and it becomes necessary to develop efficient methods of studying such systems. A basic step in this direction is to study the nonlinear dynamics of a system of two parallel defect layers ͑two point defects͒. In the theory of nonlinear waves it is well known 24 that the basic features of soliton dynamics are contained in the problem of two coupled an- harmonic oscillators, in particular, the breaking of the sym- metry of the excitation when a threshold value of its total power is reached. In nonlinear optics this circumstance was pointed out in Ref. 25 for a system of two coupled waveguides. In Refs. 26 and 27, in a study of the propagation of nonlinear optical pulses
along two
plane-parallel waveguides, it was assumed that the waveguides and the surrounding medium have different values of the nonlinear refractive index. ͑The profile of the nonlinear refractive in- dex in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the waveguides was modeled by rectangular 26 or smoothed bell-shaped 27 functions. ͒ However, in all of the studies listed, the propagation of nonlinear waves was investigated using numerical simulation methods. For the proposed simple model ͑1͒ we have shown ana- lytically that in the case of two plane layers ͑two defects͒ the wave flux undergoes a transition at a critical value of its energy to a spatially nonuniform state with different total fluxes in adjacent layers. 1. PROPAGATION OF COHERENT WAVES IN NONLINEAR LAYERED STRUCTURES Let us give some examples of nonlinear layered media whose dynamics is described by Eq. ͑1͒.
1a. An easy-axis ferromagnet (easy axis along z) consisting of parallel layers differing in the single-ion anisotropy con- stant. Such a magnet is described by the Landau–Lifshitz equation
28 for the magnetization vector M ϭ(M
, M y , M z ):
ប 2
0 ץ ץ t Ϫ ␣ M z ⌬ ϩ ␣ ⌬M z ϩ  ͑z͒
z ϭ0,
͑2͒ where
⌬ is the Laplacian operator, 0 is the Bohr magneton, ϭM x ϩiM y , ␣ is the exchange interaction constant, and  is the single-ion anisotropy constant. ͑The alternating mag- netic layers lie perpendicular to the z axis. ͒ Let us consider a layered structure consisting of thin ͑thickness b) layers of a magnet with magnetic anisotropy (  0 Ϫ  1 ), separated by thick layers ͑thickness 2aϪb) of another magnet with anisotropy  0
duce the uniform ferromagnetic resonance frequency 0 ϭ2 0 M 0  0 / ប and the magnetic length l 0 ϭ ͱ ␣ /  0 for the
thick layers of the second magnet ( M 0 is the nominal mag- netization of the unit cell ͒. In the case of weak modulation of the magnetic properties (  1 b Ӷ  0 a) and in the long- wavelength approximation (l 0 ٌӶ1) for spin waves of small amplitude ( ͉ ͉ 2 ӶM 0 2 ), Eq. ͑2͒ simplifies to i 0 ץ ץ t Ϫl 0 2
ϩ Ϫ  1 ͑z͒  0 Ϫ 1 2 M 0 2 ͉ ͉ 2 ϭ0. ͑3͒ Here the weak modulation of the magnetic anisotropy is taken into account only in the linear term. In the case of a coherent spin wave with a fixed wave number k, propagating along the x axis of a magnetic layered structure which is uniform in this direction, the solution is conveniently writ- ten in the form ϭ2M 0 u(z,t)exp ͓Ϫi(kxϪ
͔, where
ϭ 0 (1 ϩk 2 l 0 2 ) is the frequency of a linear spin wave in a homogeneous magnet with anisotropy  ϵ
0 , and u(z,t) is a slowly varying function of the coordinate z and time. In the stationary case the function u(t) takes into account the fre- quency shift due to the nonlinearity of the wave, its possible localization in the z direction, and the differences of the av- eraged anisotropy in the layered medium from the value  0 and may also incorporate slow nonstationary effects. If time is measured in units of 1/ 0
0 , then Eq. ͑3͒ for u(z,t) becomes Ϫi ץ
ץ
ϩ ץ
u ץ
2 ϩ2͉u͉ 2 u ϭϪ  1 ͑z͒  0
͑4͒ Finally, for a large difference in the thicknesses of the magnetic layers (a ӷb) the right-hand side of Eq. ͑4͒ can be replaced by a system of ␦ functions for the planar magnetic defects: Ϫ  1 ͑z͒  0
ϷϪ ͚
␦
͑5͒ with
ϭb  1 /  0 . 1b. A nonlinear elastic medium containing plane-parallel de- fects perpendicular to the z axis. ͑For simplicity below we assume that the defect layers differ from the main matrix only in the mass of the atoms. ͒ For purely shear waves propagating in a cubic crystal along the layers ͑along the x axis
͒ and uniform in the direction of the y axis, through a suitable choice of scales for the time, coordinate, and wave amplitude the equation of the dynamics for the displace- ments u(x,z,t) can be put in dimensionless form: 29 587
Low Temp. Phys. 26 (8), August 2000 I. V. Gerasimchuk and A. S. Kovalev ͑z͒ ץ 2
ץ t 2 Ϫ ץ 2
ץ
2 Ϫ ץ 2
ץ
2 ϩ ͭ 3 ͩ ץ
ץ
ͪ 2 ץ 2
ץ
2 ϩ3 ͩ ץ
ץ
ͪ 2 ץ 2
ץ
2 ϩ ץ ץ z ͫͩ ץ u dx ͪ 2 ץ u ץ
ͬ ϩ
ץ ץ
ͫͩ ץ
ץ z ͪ 2 ץ u ץ
ͬ ͮ
ͫ ץ 4 u ץ
4 ϩ
4 u ץ
4 ϩ
ץ 2 ץ z 2 ͩ ץ 2
ץ
2 ͪ ͬ ϭ0,
͑6͒ where
is the sign function, equal to 1 for ‘‘focusing’’ and to Ϫ1 for ‘‘defocusing’’ media, and
are dimensionless parameters which are of the order of unity and depend on the ratios of the nonlinear and linear elastic constants, respec- tively, and the function (z) ϭ1 for the main matrix and (z) ϭM/m in the defect layers (M and m are the masses of the defect and host atoms, respectively ͒. In a focusing medium ( ϭ1) with normal dispersion (
their direction of propagation, 29 and it is therefore natural to consider stationary waves propagating along the layers and having an amplitude which depends weakly on time and on the coordinate in the direction perpendicular to the layers. In the resonance approximation such a solution in the case of a fixed wave vector of the carrier wave can be written in the form u ϷA͑z,t͒cos͑kxϪ
͒ϪB͑z,t͒sin͑kxϪ
͒, ͑7͒ where A and B are slowly varying functions of their argu- ments,
2 ϭk 2 Ϫ k 4 , which corresponds to the dispersion relation for linear waves in the ideal lattice ͑in the chosen variables the sound velocity is equal to unity ͒. Substituting expression ͑7͒ into Eq. ͑6͒ and retaining in it only the first derivatives ץ ϭA/ ץ t, ץ
ץ
and the second derivatives with respect to the ‘‘slow’’ coor- dinate z and introducing the complex function U ϭAϩiB, we can easily write Eq. ͑6͒ in the approximate form 2i ץ U ץ
ϩ͑1Ϫ
2 ͒ ץ 2 U ץ
2 ϩ
4
4 ͉U͉ 2 U ϭϪ ͩ M m Ϫ1 ͪ 2
͚
␦ ͑zϪ2an͒U, ͑8͒ where b is the thickness of the defect layers and 2a is the distance between them. In the derivation of Eq. ͑8͒ we have taken into account the relation ץ
ץ
Ӷ U and have dropped the terms 2i ( M /m Ϫ1)( ץ
ץ
␦ (z). Measuring the time in units of 2/ and the coordinate z in units of ͱ 1 Ϫ k 2 /k, and introducing the new displacements W ϭkU ͱ 3/(2 ͱ 2), we rewrite Eq. ͑8͒ in an manner analogous to ͑4͒ and ͑5͒: i ץ
ץ
ϩ ץ 2 W ץ
2 ϩ2
͉W͉ 2
ϭϪ ͚
␦ ͑zϪ2an͒W, ͑9͒ where
ϭ͓(M/m)Ϫ1͔b. 1c. A nonlinear optical medium containing plane-parallel waveguides, i.e., layers characterized by a larger refractive index than the optical medium between them. ͑As above, we assume that the layers lie perpendicular to the z axis. ͒ In the
case of a plane-polarized wave propagating in a nonmagnetic medium (
ϭ1) along the layers ͑in the x direction͒, with no dependence on the coordinate y and with its electric field vector E directed along the y axis (E ʈi
), Maxwell’s equa- tions take the form
2 ͑z,E͒ ץ 2
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