The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
Theorem (Euler 1736) A connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if
the degree of each vertex of G is even. Since this is an especially famous theorem, credit is given to its discoverer at the start of the theorem statement. The phrase “if and only if” indicates that this is really two theorems in one: If a graph is Eulerian then every vertex has even degree, and if every vertex has even degree then the graph is Eulerian. The first part seems simple enough, based on our earlier obser- vation that a vertex that appears k times in an Eulerian cycle must have degree 2k. The other direction is surprisingly difficult, however, and the next step would be to write down a logically cogent proof showing it to be true. That level of detail is beyond anything we need here. We seem to have completely solved the Eulerian cycle problem: A graph has an Eulerian cycle precisely when every vertex has even 70 3 parallel tracks degree. That is hardly the end of the story, however. A mathematician would now instinctively ask other questions. For example, what if we want to use every vertex instead of every edge? Can we walk around the graph using every vertex exactly once, starting and ending at the same vertex? This is called a Hamiltonian cycle, after the mathematician who first studied this question, and it turns out to be a much harder problem than the corresponding question for Eulerian cycles. There is nothing like our previous theorem in the case of Hamiltonian cycles. In other words, there is no easily observable property of a graph that tells you definitively whether or not a graph has a Hamiltonian cycle. Can we, then, prove theorems showing at least that certain specific kinds of graphs have Hamiltonian cycles? What if we ask the same questions for directed graphs, in which the edges have arrows on them indicating we can only traverse them in one direction? What if we have a weighted graph, meaning that there is a cost associated with crossing each edge? In such a situation, can we devise an algorithm that will allow us to walk around the graph at minimal cost? Notice that we have left reality behind at this point. We are just asking questions about graphs and trying to answer them as best we can. This is what I mean when I refer to studying mathematical models for their own sake, separate from any real-world concerns. We take it for granted that graphs are worth studying since they model so many real-world phenomena, and therefore anything we learn about them will be at least potentially useful. Let us go one more round to see how the two tracks play out with the notion of “continuous function.” Again, let me emphasize that I am including the technical details simply to make a point. You can skim over them without losing the thread of our subsequent discussions. Informally, the idea of “continuity” was that a projectile does not teleport from over here to over there. Instead it moves in a smooth, graceful arc. Sticking with track one, a continuous function is one whose graph can be drawn without lifting your pencil from the paper. 3.2 you need both rigor and intuition 71 These are useful ways to picture what continuity means, but they again suffer from a lack of precision. If this is all we know about continuity, then what will we do when confronted with a function whose graph is too complex to draw? How can we come to understand continuous functions in general if we need a picture of each function individually just to know whether or not it is continuous? We need a track two version of continuity, but in this case it is difficult to see how to devise a precise definition. We want to capture the idea that a continuous function has no breaks or jumps. If we imagine a small bug crawling along a curve, he should not encounter a point where he suddenly has to fall off a cliff, or jump a great height, to continue on his way. Roughly, we can say that a continuous function is one where the behavior of the function near a point matches the way the function behaves at the point. This is shown in Figure 3.5. Formulating a proper definition of continuity therefore requires making a distinction between behavior at a point from behavior near a point. This distinction is captured by the notion of the “limit” of a function at a point. With a bit more work, we eventually arrive at something like this: Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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