The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
Pregel River
A B C D figure 3.1 In the eighteenth century, the Prussian city of Königsberg was divided into four land masses, labeled A–D, by the Pregel River. The masses were connected by seven bridges, as shown. land masses were connected by seven bridges, as shown schematically in Figure 3.1. The locals wondered whether it was possible to walk through the city in such a way that each bridge was crossed exactly once. This problem came to the attention of Leonhard Euler (pronounced OY-ler), who was a mathematician of some prominence at that time. He devised an abstract model in which each land mass was represented by a dot, with the bridges represented by (possibly curved) lines connecting the dots. This is shown in Figure 3.2. An arrangement of dots and lines of this sort is today referred to as a “graph.” It is customary to refer to the dots as “vertices” and the lines as “edges.” Since this particular graph allows multiple edges between the same pair of vertices, it is commonly referred to as a “multigraph.” The number of edges coming out of a given vertex is commonly called the “degree” of that vertex. Euler noticed that every vertex in his figure had an odd degree. Specifically, vertex A has degree 5, while vertices B, C, and D each 3.1 math is simple, reality is complex 61 A B C D figure 3.2 An abstract model for the arrangement of land masses and bridges in Königsberg. have degree 3. Imagine that you are walking along the graph. Each time you first enter, and then leave, a vertex, you use up two available edges. Now suppose there really was a walk that traversed each bridge exactly once. Then, if we visit a vertex exactly k times during the walk, then its degree must be 2k, which is an even number. The only exceptions to this are the starting and ending vertices, which might have an odd degree. In other words, our walk will only be possible in a graph in which no more than two vertices have odd degree. Since that is not the case here, we see that the locals will search in vain for the desired walk. A walk through a graph in which every edge is traversed exactly once is today called an “Eulerian walk,” in Euler’s honor. This is what modeling looks like when it is successful. We devised an abstract model for a practical problem, and by studying the model we found a solution to the problem. The model stripped away all the distracting, irrelevant detail – such as the layout of roads on the land masses or the differing demographics among them – and allowed the focus instead to be on the really important detail – the evenness or oddness of the number of bridges on each mass. (Mathematicians would call this the “parity” of the number of bridges.) The story does not end here. Once you have the idea of mod- eling something with a graph, you begin to see graphs everywhere. Electrical engineers might see the vertices as representing circuit connections and the edges as representing the wires that join them. Physicists and chemists might see the vertices as representing atoms 62 3 parallel tracks in a molecule and the edges as representing bonds between them. In biology the vertices might represent proteins, with the edges repre- senting interactions among them. Ecologists might see the vertices as habitats and the edges as animal migration routes. If a particular abstract model can be used to represent many physical phenomena, a mathematician will argue that the abstraction is worth studying for its own sake. From this observation, the modern field of “graph theory” was born, and it remains an active area of research today. We might hope that anything we discover about graphs will simultaneously be useful to engineers studying circuits, to physicists and chemists studying molecules, to biologists studying protein interactions, and to ecologists studying animal migrations. Graph theory has indeed contributed to all of those fields. Let us try a more complex example. A standard problem in physics is to predict the motion of a projectile. Perhaps we throw a baseball, for example, and we want to predict how high it will go and how long it will take to return to the ground. We know from experience that the ball will trace out a graceful arc, with the result looking something like Figure 3.3. Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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