The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Canadian attitudes towards animals. I suggest then, that their new genre may
have been a product of dissatisfaction with their nation’s anthropocentric attitude towards animals. It is also useful to remember, here, that at a pivotal stage in the wild animal story’s development, the two men met for the first time while they were both living in New York. I think we can safely infer that, at some point, Seton and Roberts were probably exposed to the “more radical edge” of animal protection that Ingram describes (222), which seems to have been so lacking in their own country. Although I have had to piece together the dual histories of Canada’s animal welfare and wildlife conservation efforts —there has been shockingly little scholarship on both these fronts —it is clear that they did not progress evenly. Efforts to protect domesticated animals were in place long before the same concern was given to wild animals. We can see this legacy in Seton ’s and Roberts’ direct application of animal rights thinking to their wild animal characters. For instance, their language of ‘rights’ and ‘kinship’ closely resembles that of English animal rights campaigner, Henry Salt, whose many books —including Animals’ Rights (1892), The Logic of Vegetarianism (1899), and The Creed of Kinship (1935) —were published on both sides of the Atlantic. Seton’s emphatic conclusion of “Redruff” gives a clear message: “Have the wild things no moral or legal rights? What right has man to inflict such long and fearful agony on a fellow-creature, simply because that creature does not speak Allmark-Kent 87 his language?” (Known 357, emphasis added). In Animals’ Rights (1892), Salt provides an answer: “wild animals, no less than domestic animals, have their rights [...] it is not to owned animals merely that we must extend our sympathy and protection” (45). He adds, however, that the rights owed to wild animals are less easy to define. This ambivalence around our duties to wild animals can also be seen in Roberts’ writing. On the whole, he seems more tentative than Seton about making declarations on behalf of animals. Yet he uses the language of kinship frequently, as indicated by the title Kindred of the Wild. Moreover, in concluding the book’s preface, he asserts that the wild animal story can lead us “back to the old kinship of the earth, ” and an “intimacy” between humans and animals that would encourage in us all a more “humane” heart and a greater “spiritual” understanding (29). The language here is clearly gesturing towards a less exploitative relationship with animals. However, it is easy to sense Roberts’ uncertainty about how to proceed. Nonetheless, Salt asserts that the “central cause” of animal exploitation is “the disregard of the natural kinship between man and the animals, and the consequent denial of their rights ” (122, emphasis added). In other words, Salt suggests that a full recognition of animal-human kinship will necessarily result in our acceptance that animals have rights. He explains, however, that if we desire to cultivate a closer intimacy with the wild animals, it must be an intimacy based on a genuine love for them as living beings and fellow- creatures, not on the superior power or cunning by which we draft them from their native haunts, warp the whole purpose of their lives, and degrade them to the level of pets, or curiosities, or labour-saving automations. (53) A gain, we can see the connection between Roberts’ and Salt’s discussions of ‘kinship’ and ‘intimacy.’ Moreover, both men emphasize the importance of trying Allmark-Kent 88 to gain a “sympathetic understanding” (Roberts, Kindred 27) of all “animals, both wild and tame” (Salt 53). As I have stated, however, I have found no evidence of Seton or Roberts’ direct contact with Salt. Nevertheless, there is an unmistakable similarity of language and ideas here, and it would not be wholly unsurprising if the two Canadians were unaware that they originated with Salt. In his preface to a 1980 edition of Animals’ Rights, Peter Singer describes the book as “the best of the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century works on the rights of animals ” (viii). It was not the first, of course, but it was the most complete. Indeed, Singer adds: “Defenders of animals, myself included, have been able to add relatively little to the essential case Salt outlined in 1892” (viii). Despite his pioneering work in this and other areas, he remains relatively unknown. At the time, although Animals Rights’ went through multiple prints in both London and New York, “it had no real impact outside humanitarian and vegetarian circles” (ix). Singer observes that, despite Salt’s secluded, rural lifestyle, he maintained friendships with a range of important artistic, literary, political, and philosophical figures of the day. 1 It is often through them that his ideas reached the pub lic, “rather than his own name” (vi). Thus, my aim here is not to imply that Seton and Roberts necessarily read Salt ’s work, but to trace the core similarities in their attitudes to animals —individuality, rights, kinship, sympathy, intimacy—all of which were at odds with conservation practices at the time. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the “fragmentary localized practices concerned with controlling the 1 Amongst Salt’s friends, Singer lists “George Bernard Shaw, William Morris, G.K. Chesterton, the Labour Party leader H.M. Hyndman, Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Ramsay MacDonald —later to be the first Labour Prime Minister of Britain —and Havelock Ellis [...] More momentous still was his influence on Gandhi, whom Salt had befriended when Gandhi first arrived in England, alone, unknown and unable to find vegetarian food. Gandhi later wrote that he owed his thoughts about civil disobedience and noncooperation to Sa lt’s book on the then little-known American radical, Henry Thoreau” (vi). Allmark-Kent 89 kinds and numbers of animals killed” were transforming into a “centralized and bureaucratic set of policies” which “conceptualized trees, fish, and wildlife as ‘resources’ to be scientifically managed” (Loo 12, emphasis added). These policies were only concerned with two ‘categories’ of wild animals: Until the mid-twentieth century , the law’s bestiary contained references to ‘game’ and ‘vermin’ only. ‘Game’ was an ever-shifting, diverse assortment of creatures, some of which were not even native to the region, but were introduced by local sportsmen as ‘exotics.’ [...] Moose became game in 1843, followed by pheasants and robins in 1856, caribou in 1862, non-indigenous American elk in 1894, and ‘animals valuable o nly for their fur’ in 1896. ‘Vermin’ were a smaller and somewhat more constant collection of predators, consisting most commonly of wolves, bears, coyotes, and cougars. Their undiscerning carnivorous palates, which favoured wild game as well as domestic livestock, literally earned them a price on their heads and the undying animosity of lawmakers. (14) It is clear, then, that like the creation of Banff National Park, this was not nature preservation but resource preservation. Part of Seton ’s and Roberts’ crucial intervention into these discourses was to defamiliarize common perceptions of wildlife; not only representing them as individuals, as we have seen, but challenging the reductive categorizations of ‘game’ and ‘vermin.’ On the surface it may seem that only charismatic mammals hold interest for Seton, but his protagonists are almost always members of these two hunted categories. Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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