The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Allmark-KentC
Animal Intelligence on the grounds that there
“should be something resembling a text-book of the facts of Comparative Psychology ,” and that the “systematic arrangement” of these facts is in itself “a worthy object of scientific endeavour” (v-vii, emphasis added). It is not necessary to describe here his complex method of selecting and verifying the credibility of both the anecdotes and their sources, but suffice it to say, as a biologist Romanes was hesitant about their use. It is important to remember this anxiety around anecdotal evidence, however, and particularly its association with unreliable amateurs and Romanes ’ preference for “observers well known as competent” (viii). Like Darwin, Romanes believed that the distance between human and animal intelligence was only a matter of degrees, and hence that there was “no difference in kind between the act of reason performed by [a] crab and any act of reason performed by a man” (Mental Evolution 337, emphasis original). While the notion of nonhu man ‘reason’ carries connotations of anthropomorphism, Romanes uses it as a synonym for ‘intelligence’ and carefully defines it in relation to instinct and reflex action: Reflex action is non-mental neuro-muscular adjustment, due to the inherited mechanism of the nervous system, which is formed to respond to particular and often recurring stimuli, by giving rise to particular movements of an adaptive though not of an intentional kind. Allmark-Kent 96 Instinct is reflex action into which there is imported the element of consciousness. The term is therefore a generic one, comprising all of those faculties of mind which are concerned in conscious and adaptive action, antecedent to individual experience, without necessary knowledge of the relation between means employed and ends attained, but similarly performed under similar and frequent recurring circumstances by all the individuals of the same species. Reason or intelligence is the faculty which is concerned in the intentional adaptation of means to ends. It therefore implies the conscious knowledge of the relation between means employed and ends attained, and may be exercised in adaptation to circumstances novel alike to the experience of the individual and to that of the species. (Intelligence 17, emphasis added.) He identifies the criteria of “mind” as the ability to learn from “individual experience,” and “if a lowly organized animal does learn by its own individual experience, we are in possession of the best available evidence of conscious memory le ading to intentional adaptation” (4-5, emphasis original). Thus, in Romanes’ view, the ability to respond to novel circumstances, remember and learn from the experience, and then intentionally apply or adapt that knowledge is ‘reason.’ In fact, in a table he created to illustrate the cognitive and emotional development of each species (published in Mental Evolution), he indicates that the ‘lowest’ species capable of reason are batrachia (frogs and salamanders), fish, higher crustacia (crabs and lobsters), reptiles, and cephalopods. Consequently, this means that he identifies reason in all mammals and birds, as well as hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and so on). Likewise he finds all animals from echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins, and similar) upwards to be conscious beings capable of pleasure, pain, and memory. According to Romanes, emotions develop in accordance with cognitive complexity; so, although he saw none in echinoderms, if we move up the table a few spaces, we find that spiders and insects (other than hymenoptera) have the potential for: secondary instincts, recognition of offspring, parental affection, social feelings, Allmark-Kent 97 sexual selection, pugnacity, industry, and curiosity. Interestingly, he also added a column for the corresponding stage of development in a human infant. For instance, according to Romanes, birds are capable of recognizing pictures, understanding words, dreaming, emulation, pride, resentment, aesthetic love of ornament, and terror —all of which require psychological and emotional development equivalent to an eight month old infant. Although this might seem oddly anthropocentric, it is clear that evolutionary continuity inspired this search for similarity and analogy in nonhuman beings. Perhaps because Animal Intelligence verified many reader’s perceptions of animals, it was extremely popular with the public. In the minds of his peers, however, Romanes’ reliance on anecdotal evidence associated him too closely with the unreliable and unscientific popular writers. Although he did participate in the popularization of sc ience, it was mostly to continue promoting Darwin’s work after his death. Indeed, as Joel Schwartz observes in his study of Romanes’ publications in Victorian periodicals, the biologist did not take eagerly to the task and did not alter his language or style for the public: “his articles were written very much as they were for scientific journals” (135). Despite Romanes’ sincere efforts to forge comparative psychology into a respected scientific discipline, the success would be had by his own protégé, Conwy Lloyd Morgan. Unfortunately, this accomplishment was due to Morgan’s efforts to steer comparative psychology away from Romanes’ methods. He opposed the use of anecdotal evidence and the search for ‘mind’ and ‘reason’ in animals. Instead, he advocated the use of laboratory experiments to seek objective proof of the controlling force of instinct. To prevent the potential anthropomorphic bias of subjective observation and interpretation, he also developed a principle that became known as Morgan’s canon. In An Introduction to Comparative |
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