The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
Download 3.36 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
Allmark-KentC
The Animal as Individual
It is clear from these few examples that Seton ’s and Roberts’ nonhuman protagonists are individuals with unique perspectives, experiences, abilities, desires, and motivations. Yet both writers have been accused of producing archetypal ‘animal heroes.’ Thomas Benson, for instance, describes Seton as “a storyteller with few rivals in the representation of animals as moral heroes” (84). Whilst it is true that some protagonists are the ‘fastest,’ ‘smartest,’ ‘strongest,’ and so on, it would be reductive to claim that this is always the case. In fact, Lori Jo Oswald concludes her study of animal stereotyping by admitting that she “did not intend to write a defence of the so-called nature fakers,” and yet what I discovered was that the founders [of the wild animal story] deserve much more credit than they have received for their realistic portrayals of animals [...] Because they focused on the individuality of their animal characters, even their animal heroes, they avoided stereotyping the members of a given species. They also avoided representing animal characters as mere victims, unlike several recent writers. (148, emphasis added) Thus, we find that the wild animal story’s emphasis the individual animal produces a curious tension. Does the writer depict his or her protagonist as a typical member of the species or a unique individual with a distinct set of characteristics? In a much-quoted passage from his preface to Wild Animals I Have Known, Seton remarks: I believe that natural history has lost much by the vague general treatment that is so common. What satisfaction would be derived from a ten-page sketch of the habits and customs of Man? How much more profitable it would be to devote that space to the life of some one great man. This is the principle I have endeavoured to apply to my animals. The real personality of the individual and his view of life are my theme, rather than the ways of the race in general, as viewed by a casual and hostile human eye. (9-10, emphasis added) It may be possible that this is where Seton’s ‘awkward imitator,’ William Long, found his argument for science’s inability to account for animal individuality, discussed in the previous chapter. However, it can also be found in Salt’s Allmark-Kent 108 description of natural history in Animals’ Rights. As I have stated, I can find no evidence of their interaction, yet Seton and Salt seem to echo each other, nonetheless: For consider the dealings of the so-called naturalist with the animals whose nature he makes it his business to observe! In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, he is wholly unappreciative of the essential distinctive quality, the individuality, of the subject of his investigations, and becomes nothing more than a contented accumulator of facts, an industrious dissector of carcases. (91, emphasis added) In these instances t he wild animal story’s conjunction of science, advocacy, and literature can feel uneasy. W hat is the difference between “stereotyping the members of a given species” (Oswald 148) and depicting an individual’s “species-typical” (Shaprio and Copeland 345) behaviour? Is there, as Seton suggests, little to be gained from a “sketch of the habits and customs” of animals , compared to the study of one “great” animal (Known 9)? How can the writers of such individual stories become “assiduous contributors” to animal psychology (Kindred 24), as Roberts would suggest? I contend that we can address these issues by considering both the sheer number of Seton ’s and Roberts’ stories and the diversity of species they represented. For instance, despite Seton’s description of Wild Animals I Have Known as “Being the Personal Histories of Lobo, Silverspot, Raggylug, Bingo, the Springfield Fox, the Pacing Mustang, Wully and Redruff” (1), it is clear that with each story he is contributing to a broader depiction of avian and mammalian life. Likewise, Roberts’ story “The Lord of the Air” from Kindred is the narrative of an individual eagle’s capture and escape. However, when read in context with the rest of the volume —and, indeed, with the rest of the genre— it can be understood as one investigation, among many, on the topics of nonhuman cognitive, emotional, and social complexity. We might even compare it to “Kehonka,” from the same volume, to consider whether conscious desire or Allmark-Kent 109 instinctive urges were responsible for these individuals’ efforts to regain their autonomy. In concluding his book The Exultant Ark (2011), cognitive ethologist Jonathan Balcombe explains the importance of perceiving animals as individuals: Species and populations are useful concepts, but they don’t take into consideration animals’ sentience. Species and populations don’t feel pains or pleasures; only individuals do. So when we consider animals with regard to their capacity to feel, we must consider them as separate and unique. As surely as they each have a biology, each also has a biography. (192, emphasis added) Here, then, we can see the difference between natural history (as described by Seton and Salt) and the modern, scientific study of animal minds. Indeed, in The Emotional Lives of Animals , fellow ethologist Marc Bekoff writes: “We must make every attempt to maintain the animal’s point of view. We must repeatedly ask, ‘What is that individual’s experience?’” (125). Thus, as I will demonstrate later in this chapter, I suggest that Seton and Roberts were producing a form of anecdotal cognitivism. This is a phrase Dale Jamieson and Marc Bekoff use to characterize Romanes’ method of using observations of individuals to infer the cognitive states of a species (Jamieson and Bekoff 111). As Romanes explains, his efforts to synthesize anecdotes and stories led him to “cast as wide a net as possible,” fishing “the seas of popular literature as well as the rivers of scientific writing,” (Animal Intelligence vii). Similarly, in his preface to Kindred, Roberts observes that “‘anecdotes of animals’ came to form a not inconsiderable body of literat ure” (22). It seems fair to suggest, therefore, that the vast number of wild animal stories became their own not inconsiderable body of evidence for their authors ’ perceptions of animal cognition. Indeed, I contend that like Romanes, Seton and Roberts attempted to use their stories “to determine the upper limit of intelligence reached by this or that class, order, or species of animals” (Animal Allmark-Kent 110 Intelligence viii). Just like Romanes’ anecdotes of animal behaviour, the story of a unique individual’s rare abilities becomes subsumed within the general depiction of the species. Moreover, the juxtaposition of their stories within each volume means that the figure in the background of one narrative is the ‘hero’ of another, and vice versa. I have observed an additional issue, however, which perhaps ought to be of greater concern to literary animal studies: does the use of ‘animal heroes’ suggest that only exceptional animals deserve our attention and respect? Would we extend the same concern to both the typical and atypical members of the species? For instance, would Kehonka’s story stir the same sympathy if he had not summoned the enormous strength required to fly? And, furthermore, how do we interpret Roberts’ use of playfully grandiose titles like “Lord of the Air” and “Master of the Golden Pond”? On the whole, I interpret Roberts’ use of ‘lords’ and ‘masters’ as an extension of his attempts to imagine nonhuman perspectives. Rather than speculating on the general abilities of a species, Roberts tends to create his thought-experiments on an individual basis. Could a goose with clipped wings regain the ability to fly? How might it feel to be the dominant individual in an area? Indeed, in “Lord of the Air,” Roberts depicts both his protagonist’s aggressive relationship with other birds of prey and the impact of his absence on their community. Nonetheless, the question of whether readers and writers are biased towards extraordinary members of a species is a significant question for zoocentric literature. Moreover, for truly “robust and respectful presentations of animals” (Shapiro and Copeland 345), we cannot force them into either role as ‘hero’ or ‘victim.’ |
Ma'lumotlar bazasi mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan ©fayllar.org 2024
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling