The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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curious individual. Moreover, his awareness of species loss becomes a
defamiliarizing address to readers. The strength of zoocentric narratives can often lie in the nonhuman’s ability to observe and communicate the consequences of human behaviour back to us. Beginning with early sightings of Eskimo curlews by Europeans, the first historical account quoted in “The Gauntlet” is from the Royal Society of London in 1772: “New Species. Scolopax Borealis. Eskimaux Curlew. This species of curlew, [sic] is not yet known to the Ornithologists” (20). The excerpt notes that the curlew “breeds to the northward, returns in August, and goes away southward again the latter end of September in enormous flocks” (20). Bodsworth includes these descriptions in the extract to ensure that the reader is Allmark-Kent 165 aware that in 1772 the Eskimo curlew population was “enormous,” a stark comparison to the solitary life of his lonely protagonist. The following “Gauntlet” section states that in 1884 the Eskimo curlew was still plentiful: “Here an immense flock of several hundred individuals were making their way to the south” (30). As the accounts continue, however, the death toll rises and the population diminishes: Annual Report of the Board of Regents for the year ending June 30, 1915. . . . [sic] In Newfoundland and on the Magdalen Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, for many years after the middle of the nineteenth century, the Eskimo curlew arrived in August and September in millions that darkened the sky. . . . In a day’s shoot by 25 or 30 men as many as 2,000 curlews would be kil led for the Hudson Bay Co.’s store at Cartwright, Labrador. (49) The Committee on Bird Protection desire to present herewith to the Fifty- fifth Stated Meeting of the American Ornithologists’ Union the results of its inquiries during 1939 […] the most dangerously situated are unquestionably the California condor, Eskimo curlew and ivory-billed woodpecker. They have been reduced to the point where numbers may be so low that individuals remain separated. (77) In less than two centuries, the Eskimo curlew pop ulation reduces from “millions” (49) to scattered individuals. The time-scale aligns with the colonization of North America, and as the dates of each extract progress chronologically, their locations move geographically: from the first published by “The Royal Society of London” in 1772 (19) to the last published by “University of Toronto Press: 1955 in co- operation with the Royal Ontario Museum of Zoology and Palæontology” (123). It is significant also that the Hudson’s Bay Company is mentioned frequently t hroughout “The Gauntlet.” Initially a fur-trading business known as “the Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson Bay” (Miller 149), the Company was instrumental in the colonial exploitation of Canadian wildlife. Here, then, we see the consequences of the extremely anthropocentric thinking encountered in the early Canadian nature writing. By the twentieth-century, however, the myth of North American superabundance has finally been Allmark-Kent 166 exposed. For instance, Bodsworth states that “the Eskimos once waited for the soft, tremulous, far-carrying chatter of the Eskimo curlew flocks and the promise of tender flesh that chatter brought to the Arctic land” (7). He implicitly reveals that although some indigenous peoples of the Arctic used curlews for meat they did not drive the species to extinction. That is to be blamed, Bodsworth suggests, upon European colonizers and their descendants. Bodsworth’s use of historical materials demonstrates the catastrophic real-world consequences of speciesism. Bodsworth opens the novel with a short introductory statement, providing an overview of the curlew’s migration patterns and gradual extinction: “the Eskimo curlew, originally one of the continent’s most abundant game-birds, flew a gauntlet of shot each Spring and Autu mn” (7). The identification as ‘game’ spells the death of the Eskimo curlew population, just as ‘vermin’ had done for Seton’s wolves and coyotes. One extract in “The Gauntlet” mentions that the curlew was also called “Dough-bird” by gunners (57). This name derives from the bird’s technique of overfeeding and gaining weight prior to migration in order to endure the gruelling journey. It is a tragic irony that a survival mechanism honed by evolution should accelerate the death of the species because humans fi nd “the thick layer of fat […] so soft that it felt like a ball of dough” so delicious (57). The same extract goes on to demonstrate the devastation caused by this label: two Massachusetts market gunners sold $300 worth from one flight . . . boys offer the birds for sale at 6 cents apiece . . . in 1882 two hunters in Nantucket shot 87 Eskimo curlew in one morning . . . by 1894 there was only one dough-bird offered for sale on the Boston market. (48) The Eskimo curlew’s extinction was not caused by seemingly ‘indirect’ human actions, such as loss of habitat. The exact correlation between the name ‘dough-bird’ and the extreme proportions of the species’ slaughter demonstrate the direct link between anthropocentric discourse and anthropocentric violence. Allmark-Kent 167 If the Eskimo curlew had not fitted into the category assigned to it by humans, it might have been allowed to survive like many other nonhumans we choose not to kill. Bodsworth does not explicitly state that the label ‘game-bird’ spelled the curlew’s destruction, but he demonstrates it through his introductory overview of their extinction and the historical materials selected for “The Gauntlet. As Scholtmeijer states, “[t]he facts speak for themselves; as presented, they disallow authorial condemnation, but nevertheless illustrate human culpability on a vast scale” (130). R.Y. Edwards’ review of Last of the Curlew for The Murrelet in 1995 states: “here is a good example of the fictitious narrative, carefully told, which will reach a wider audience with a far more powerfully told and palatable message than the scraps of fact available ever do” (13). Just as Edwards argues that the bare science would have lesser impact without the story, the historical extracts alone would be less moving without the curlew. It is the combination of the archive evidence and the curlew’s defamiliarizing questioning which drives the force of Bodsworth’s critique. The male Eskimo curlew poses an unspoken question and “The Gauntlet” provides the answer. Moreover, the curlew’s sympathetic narrative would be less intense if he were not the last of his species. His solitary life is all the more distressing for his strong emotional responses, loneliness dominating above all. On a grand scale, the extinction of a species is terrible but without the individual narrative the loss is reduced to statistics and dates, and the inconceivable mass of deaths. Again, as in Return, we find an emphasis on the connection between the suffering individual and the suffering species. Bodsworth takes the general extinction of the Eskimo curlew and transforms it into a unique individual’s story of isolation and grief. He also demonstrates that those individuals each have a biography. Allmark-Kent 168 Scholtmeijer notes that the “sense of the tragic in Last of the Curlews is held somewhere between the vision of the world in which there will be no more curlews and the experiences of the lone remaining individual ” (128). If these experiences were bare biological facts —the insignificant movements of an instinct-driven automaton —the ‘tragic’ quality of the tale would be lost. Despite Bodsworth’s repeated claims that the curlew possesses a “simple” (28) and “slow-working brain” (92) the reader is presented with the proof of his intense, wide-ranging emotions: “feverishly” (9); “passion” (9, 14, 16, 117); “ecstasy of home-coming” (9); “excitedly” (14, 90, 115); “tormenting” (14, 73); “frenzied” (14); “a fury as passionate as his love” (16); “maddened” (17); “a pressing desire for companionship” (25); “hope” (33); “torn between the two torturing desires” (45); “restlessness” (46); “nostalgic yearning for home” (74); “love-making” (80); “felt as if he had been reborn and was starting another life” (80); “love display” (81); “their own companionship was so complete and satisfying” (83); “agony of loneliness torturing him again” (86); “frightening” (92); “mounting emotion” (114); “frantic display of love” (114); “tenderly” (116); “satisfied them emotionally” (117); “passion became a fierce, unconstrainable frenzy” (114); “terrified and bewildered” (120); “frantic pleas” (121); “plaintive cries” (121); and “fear” (121). Evidently, the actions and feelings of Bodsworth’s protagonist are at odds with his reductive descriptions. Whilst she enters into no in-depth discussion, Janice Fiamengo mentions that Bodsworth claims that the brains of curlews have little capacity for conscious thought or memory, yet “ascribes to his main character a passionate emotional life” characterized by “emotions seemingly inseparable from thought and memory” (1). The emotions listed above demonstrate the validity of Fiamengo’s statement. Nonetheless, I suggest that Bodsworth’s insistence on ‘instinct’ may, paradoxically, strengthen Allmark-Kent 169 the effect of the curlew’s autonomy. Driven by Bodsworth’s repetitive assertions that the curlew possesses only a “rudimentary brain” (24), the reader’s expectation of a simplistic, instinct-driven bird is disrupted by his intense, heart- wrenching emotions, as well as his defamiliarizing interrogation of his own lonelin ess. The effect is startling and, again, reinforces the curlew’s status as a Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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