The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Allmark-KentC
Animals I Have Known and The White Puma have shaped this divide between
animal protagonist as ‘victim’ and ‘survivor.’ As indicated by the figures of Lansing and Carew, Lawrence’s book suggests an atmosphere of both optimism and frustration. The prominence of both animal rights and environmental movements in the decades prior to The White Puma ’s publication, enable a degree of hopefulness that is entirely absent from Return to the River or Last of the Curlews. At the end of the novel, the white puma, his mate, and their offspring are safe. However, the frustration expressed through Allmark-Kent 178 both the verbal abuse received by the conservationists and the hunters’ easy exploitation of insufficient protection laws demonstr ates that the ‘exploitation and protection’ paradox (which inhibited animal advocacy in Seton’s and Roberts’ day) continues to impact progress. As such, Lawrence uses the secondary human narrative of The White Puma to promote the importance of animal protection and conservation work; both its current limitations and future potential. In other words, the intervening century has enabled the writers of wild animal stories to propose a human solution to a human problem. Although Lawrence abandoned his biology degree at the University of Cambridge, he dedicated his much of his later life to working as a conservationist, nature writer, and field biologist. At Cambridge he had refused to adopt the required forms of academic and scientific writing, on the grounds that they were elitist and inaccessible. This was a stance that he maintained throughout his career, often conveying extensive biological, ecological, and ethological information to popular audiences through both fiction and nonfiction. It seems fair to suggest, then, that as a prolific but unqualified naturalist who wrote for non-specialists, Lawrence shares certain characteristics with Seton. For instance, he also cared for and rehabilitated wild animals, and spent long periods conducting his own field wor k and studies, including “one ten-month stint in British Columbia’s Selkirk Mountains where, in total isolation, he stalked out and then observed a puma through three seasons of its life” (White Puma 331). These experiences fuelled Lawrence’s writing (just as similar encounters had for Seton), as a result, his published works span not only natural history, wildlife conservation, and environmental science, but also autobiographical nature writing, factual animal narratives, and book-length wild animal stories. Allmark-Kent 179 Significantly however, self-conscious assertions of scientific accuracy and credibility, like those made by Seton, are absent in Lawrence’s work. While Haig-Brown and Bodsworth made no such assertions either, I have demonstrated that their careful strategies for engaging with the sciences reveal a certain hesitancy. Lawrence, on the other hand, writes with the expertise and authority of a biologist, regardless of whether he is officially recognized as such. Having already published at least twenty books, most of which were natural history and nonfiction, it is unsurprising that the back matter for The White Puma describes Lawrence as a “field biologist and naturalist” (331) with no trace of Seton’s awkward or self-justifying tone. Indeed, in the preface for one of his earlier nonfiction books, Wildlife in North America: Mammals (1974), Lawrence identifies himself as an amateur naturalist without undermining the credulity of his work or incurring criticisms such as those made during the Nature Fakers contr oversy: “For more than twenty years I have been following the trails of North America’s mammals, an occupation that began as a hobby and turned into a commitment as the years passed” (9). I would suggest that, due to the continuing specialization of the sc iences, Lawrence’s claim poses no threat to the professional, scientific establishment; he does not assert himself as a biochemist or theoretical physicist, for instance. We can see, then, that by the late twentieth century, there was no need to police the boundaries of natural history as Burroughs and Roosevelt had done —the role of ‘naturalist’ had possibly returned to the hands of amateurs once again. Indeed, the vastly different receptions of Seton ’s and Roberts’ work make this clear. Seton’s helped to instigate a long, well-publicized controversy; while Lawrence’s caused so little debate that it is almost impossible to find any articles written about his books. Allmark-Kent 180 Hence, rather than using a self-justifying preface to establish the scientific credibility of his work, Lawrence opens The White Puma with a brief note, titled simply “The Puma (Felis concolor)” (xiii). The note provides information on the puma’s anatomy (including the average weight and measurements of adult males and females), mating behaviour, habitats and geographical spread, local name in different languages, and widespread population loss due to hunting (xiii-xiv). Here, Lawrence demonstrates the foundation of his novel in both the sciences and advocacy for animal protection, as well as indicating the solid factual basis for his representations. Likewise, in the prologue, he emphasizes scientific explanations for the puma’s behaviour: “his keen sense of smell even allowed him to recognize the individual odours of each of its [human, canine, and equine] participants. As he watched, listened, and sniffed, his emotions fired heavy charges of endocrine hormones into his bloodstream, especially adrenaline, the chemical that prepared his body for immediate and strenuous action” (4). With a little more subtlety than Seton, Roberts, or Haig-Brown, then, Lawrence uses this blend of sensory experience, memory, emotional response, and neurochemical reaction to signpost the specific animal psychology discourse informing his work: cognitive ethology. It is worth noting, for instance, that the sharp division between instinct and intelligence (seen in previous texts informed by comparative psychology or behaviourism) has been replaced by a balance between hormonal input and cognitive complexity. Moreover, Lawre nce’s unapologetic depiction of protagonists with cognitive, emotional, and social complexity also indicates a post-behaviourist return to the confident style of animal representation found in the late nineteenth-century wild animal stories. Allmark-Kent 181 I suggest, then, that the similarities between The White Puma and the original wild animal stories owe something to the fact that Seton, Roberts, and Lawrence were not writing at the height of behaviourism’s influence. Despite the century separating them, we can perceive, quite clearly, the common attitudes to animal minds that they express. In ways reminiscent of Seton and Roberts, Lawrence demonstrates the obvious survival advantages of an individual who is able to identify and memorize different sensory input, recall and interpret that information later on, and use this knowledge and experience to guide future decisions. Indeed, Lawrence provides a long and detailed description of the careful tactics the tawny puma used when choosing a new den. The following is a condensed extract: The cougar stood in front of the opening and sniffed intently, her ears pricked forward, as sensitive to sound as her nose was to scent. When she became satisfied that the den was not already occupied by a large and powerful animal —such as a bear or another cougar—she advanced […] The cat was, of course, aware that the influences reaching her ears and nose were the normal and unchallenging signatures of a given home site: the smells and noises made by small animals, the sound of the wind passing through particular trees or over rocks, and a number of other detectable but harmless stimuli of which, she had noted years earlier, each den site had its own speci al medley. […] Without conscious intent, the cat identified and memorized all the olfactory and sonic characteristics of this den […] The signals she monitored that night were familiar and long ago stored in her memory, but the puma did not relax until she completed her inventory. (117-9) Likewise, he also uses encounters between the pumas and the hunters to reinforce the advantages of an animal mind capable of integrating sensory input with emotional memories: After she had recovered from the wound inflic ted by Walt Taggart’s bullet, memory of the shock, pain, and fear she had experienced made her more cautious than ever. [...] Had she scented Taggart and Cousins, her phenomenal memory for odors, upon which all predators depend for survival, would have allowed her to recognize her enemies. She would have then led her young to a new range. (120, 161) Allmark-Kent 182 Here, then, we can begin to the see difference between The White Puma and earlier wild animal stories. Rather than relying on instinct or metaphor to explain the actions of his protagonists, Lawrence does the (sometimes laborious) work of demonstrating the survival advantages of their cognitive, social, and emotional complexity. Of course, this would have been difficult for Seton or Roberts to achieve within the scope of a short story, whether they wanted to or not. By integrating the ability to learn (which, we might recall, was George Romanes’ definition of having a mind) into his representations at all times, Lawrence also indicates that the rigidity and fixity of pure Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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